page_id int64 1 1.25M | title stringlengths 1 250 | content stringlengths 0 77.3k | content_no_link stringlengths 0 73k | importance stringclasses 4 values | truncated bool 2 classes | error bool 2 classes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
388 | Italians | **Italians** ( ) are a [Romance](9417) [ethnic group](804581) native to the Italian peninsula. Italians have a common [culture](114736), history, [ancestry](127035) and [language](8249).
## Infobox (ethnic group)
- **group**: Italians
- **flag**:
- **flag caption**: Flag of Italy, The national flag of Italy
- **regions**: 55,551,000
- **languages**: Italian language, Italian and other languages of Italy
- **religions**: Christianity (Catholic Church)
- **related groups**: Greeks, Maltese people and other Romance peoples | **Italians** ( ) are a Romance ethnic group native to the Italian peninsula. Italians have a common culture, history, ancestry and language.
## Infobox (ethnic group)
- **group**: Italians
- **flag**:
- **flag caption**: Flag of Italy, The national flag of Italy
- **regions**: 55,551,000
- **languages**: Italian language, Italian and other languages of Italy
- **religions**: Christianity (Catholic Church)
- **related groups**: Greeks, Maltese people and other Romance peoples | unknown | false | false |
390 | ISO 19011 | **ISO 19011** is the new [global](4550) [accounting](43136) [standard](32521), replacing accounting standards that were part of ISO 14001 and ISO 9001. It is the most likely basis for accounting reform which could put an end to accounting scandals.
The standard offers four resources to organizations to "save time, effort and money":
- A clear explanation of the principles of management systems auditing.
- Guidance on the management of audit programs.
- Guidance on the conduct of internal or external audits.
- Advice on the competence and evaluation of auditors. | **ISO 19011** is the new global accounting standard, replacing accounting standards that were part of ISO 14001 and ISO 9001. It is the most likely basis for accounting reform which could put an end to accounting scandals.
The standard offers four resources to organizations to "save time, effort and money":
- A clear explanation of the principles of management systems auditing.
- Guidance on the management of audit programs.
- Guidance on the conduct of internal or external audits.
- Advice on the competence and evaluation of auditors. | low | false | false |
391 | India | {{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Republic of India
| common_name = India
| native_name = {{native name|hi|भारत गणराज्य}}
{{resize|85%|{{transliteration|hi|Bhārat Gaṇarājya}}}}
{{collapsible list
|titlestyle = text-align:center; font-size:85%;
|title = {{nobold|Scheduled languages:}}
|{{Infobox|subbox=yes|bodystyle= font-size:80%;
| rowclass1 = mergedrow| label1 = [Assamese](114925): | data1 = {{lang|as|ভাৰতৰ গণৰাজ্য}} | {{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Republic of India
| common_name = India
| native_name = {{native name|hi|भारत गणराज्य}}
{{resize|85%|{{transliteration|hi|Bhārat Gaṇarājya}}}}
{{collapsible list
|titlestyle = text-align:center; font-size:85%;
|title = {{nobold|Scheduled languages:}}
|{{Infobox|subbox=yes|bodystyle= font-size:80%;
| rowclass1 = mergedrow| label1 = Assamese: | data1 = {{lang|as|ভাৰতৰ গণৰাজ্য}} | high | true | false |
393 | Insult | An **insult** is a description of someone that will offend them. It may or may not be [true](7957). It is called _derogatory_ language. Terms like foolish, stupid, idiot and moron are insults, because they say that a person's [mind](8568) is not quick or smart.
Insulting someone's mother directly is a serious insult in many [culture](3476)s.
[Ritual](25603) insults are part of many cultures. For example, they can be found in sports and [military](3516) training. They are also very common in [jargon](404)s. For example, the word _[newbie](52465)_ is a part of net jargon. Calling someone a newbie is usually insulting.
One should be very careful when using new words to describe others.
## Reason
Usually, someone insults others because they want to feel like they are better or have more power ([influence](37238)) than the people they insult. They may want this because they are actually afraid that they are worse or less powerful than the people they are insulting.
## Effects
When someone is insulted, their [pride](40837) is hurt. They may want to fight back by insulting the person who insulted them, or by telling someone who is older. | An **insult** is a description of someone that will offend them. It may or may not be true. It is called _derogatory_ language. Terms like foolish, stupid, idiot and moron are insults, because they say that a person's mind is not quick or smart.
Insulting someone's mother directly is a serious insult in many cultures.
Ritual insults are part of many cultures. For example, they can be found in sports and military training. They are also very common in jargons. For example, the word _newbie_ is a part of net jargon. Calling someone a newbie is usually insulting.
One should be very careful when using new words to describe others.
## Reason
Usually, someone insults others because they want to feel like they are better or have more power (influence) than the people they insult. They may want this because they are actually afraid that they are worse or less powerful than the people they are insulting.
## Effects
When someone is insulted, their pride is hurt. They may want to fight back by insulting the person who insulted them, or by telling someone who is older. | medium | false | false |
394 | Immunology | **Immunology** is the study of the **[immune system](263688)**. The immune system is the parts of the body which work against [infection](9998) and [parasitism](30270) by other living things. Immunology deals with the working of the immune system in health and diseases, and with malfunctions of the immune system.
An immune system is present in all plants and animals. We know this because biologists have found genes coding for [toll-like receptor](362287)s in many different metazoans. These toll-like receptors can recognise [bacteria](10861) as 'foreign', and are the starting-point for immune reactions. The type of immunity which is triggered by the toll-like receptors is called innate immunity. This is because it is entirely [inherited](213374) in our [genome](70014), and is fully working as soon as our tissues and organs are properly developed.
[Vertebrate](5899)s, _and only vertebrates_, have a second type of immunity. This is called adaptive immunity, because it 'remembers' previous infections. Then, if the same infection occurs again, the reaction is much stronger and faster. This immunological memory "confers a tremendous survival advantage" and with it vertebrates "can survive over a long lifetime in a pathogen-filled environment".
### Innate immune response
The [innate immune system](282836) is usually means all of the [cell](130418)s and systems that does not have to be exposed to a particular [pathogen](33534) before they can work.
Innate immunity starts with the [skin](772), which is an excellent barrier to [infection](9998).
### Adaptive immune response
The [adaptive immune system](282906) includes cells and systems that do require previous exposure to a pathogen. It explains the unique ability of the mammalian immune system to remember previous infections and mount a rapid and robust reaction to secondary infections. This **immunological memory** is due to the biology of T-cells and B-cells.
## Other aspects of immunity
[Vaccine](13707)s boost the acquired immune system by offering weak forms of infection that the body can fight off. The system remembers how to do it again when a stronger infection happens. If the vaccine works, the body can then fight off a serious infection.
The distribution of vaccines and other immune system affecting cures can be considered another level of acquired immune system, one governed by access to [vaccination](13421) and [medicine](3793) in general. The intersection of this with the spread of [disease](4874) (as studied in [epidemiology](245908)) is part of the field of [public health](245876).
### Errors and weaknesses
Errors of the immune system may cause damage. In [autoimmune disease](309905)s, the body attacks parts of itself because the system mistakes some parts of the body as 'foreign'. Some kinds of [arthritis](93447) are caused this way.
Sometimes serious pathogens slip in because their surface is disguised as something the host cell walls can accept. That is how viruses work. Once inside a cell, their genetic material controls the cell. Infections like [HIV](7480) get in this way, and then attack cells which are the basis of the immune system. Artificial means are often used to restore immune system function in an HIV-challenged body, and prevent the onset of [AIDS](36802). This is one of the most complex issues in immunology as it involves every level of that system. This research during the 1980s and 1990s radically changed the view of the human immune system and its functions and integration in the [human body](353).
## History of immunology
Immunology is a science that examines the structure and function of the immune system. It originates from [medicine](3793) and early studies on the causes of immunity to disease. The earliest known mention of immunity was during the plague of Athens in 430 BC. [Thucydides](76790) (460–395 BC) noted that people who had recovered from a previous bout of some diseases could nurse the sick without contracting the illness a second time.
In the 18th century, Pierre-Louis Moreau de Maupertuis made experiments with scorpion venom and observed that certain dogs and mice were immune to this venom. This and other observations of acquired immunity led to [Louis Pasteur](22032) (1822–1895) developing [vaccination](13421) and the [germ theory of disease](30829). Pasteur's theory was in direct opposition to contemporary theories of disease, such as the miasma theory. It was not until the proofs [Robert Koch](152837) (1843–1910) published in 1891 (for which he was awarded a Nobel Prize in 1905) that [microorganism](46120)s were confirmed as the cause of infectious disease. Viruses were confirmed as human pathogens in 1901, when the [yellow fever](147001) virus was discovered by Walter Reed (1851–1902).
Immunology made a great advance towards the end of the 19th century, through rapid developments, in the study of [humoral immunity](386086) and cellular immunity. Particularly important was the work of [Paul Ehrlich](152856) (1854–1915), who proposed the side-chain theory to explain the specificity of the antigen-antibody reaction. The Nobel Prize for 1908 was jointly awarded to Ehrlich and the founder of cellular immunology, [Ilya Mechnikov](152855) (1845–1916).
The simplest form of immunity is the DNA restriction system in [bacteria](10861) that prevents [infection](9998) by [bacteriophage](45181)s.
## Related pages
- [Lymphatic system](54954)
- [White blood cell](6033) | **Immunology** is the study of the **immune system**. The immune system is the parts of the body which work against infection and parasitism by other living things. Immunology deals with the working of the immune system in health and diseases, and with malfunctions of the immune system.
An immune system is present in all plants and animals. We know this because biologists have found genes coding for toll-like receptors in many different metazoans. These toll-like receptors can recognise bacteria as 'foreign', and are the starting-point for immune reactions. The type of immunity which is triggered by the toll-like receptors is called innate immunity. This is because it is entirely inherited in our genome, and is fully working as soon as our tissues and organs are properly developed.
Vertebrates, _and only vertebrates_, have a second type of immunity. This is called adaptive immunity, because it 'remembers' previous infections. Then, if the same infection occurs again, the reaction is much stronger and faster. This immunological memory "confers a tremendous survival advantage" and with it vertebrates "can survive over a long lifetime in a pathogen-filled environment".
### Innate immune response
The innate immune system is usually means all of the cells and systems that does not have to be exposed to a particular pathogen before they can work.
Innate immunity starts with the skin, which is an excellent barrier to infection.
### Adaptive immune response
The adaptive immune system includes cells and systems that do require previous exposure to a pathogen. It explains the unique ability of the mammalian immune system to remember previous infections and mount a rapid and robust reaction to secondary infections. This **immunological memory** is due to the biology of T-cells and B-cells.
## Other aspects of immunity
Vaccines boost the acquired immune system by offering weak forms of infection that the body can fight off. The system remembers how to do it again when a stronger infection happens. If the vaccine works, the body can then fight off a serious infection.
The distribution of vaccines and other immune system affecting cures can be considered another level of acquired immune system, one governed by access to vaccination and medicine in general. The intersection of this with the spread of disease (as studied in epidemiology) is part of the field of public health.
### Errors and weaknesses
Errors of the immune system may cause damage. In autoimmune diseases, the body attacks parts of itself because the system mistakes some parts of the body as 'foreign'. Some kinds of arthritis are caused this way.
Sometimes serious pathogens slip in because their surface is disguised as something the host cell walls can accept. That is how viruses work. Once inside a cell, their genetic material controls the cell. Infections like HIV get in this way, and then attack cells which are the basis of the immune system. Artificial means are often used to restore immune system function in an HIV-challenged body, and prevent the onset of AIDS. This is one of the most complex issues in immunology as it involves every level of that system. This research during the 1980s and 1990s radically changed the view of the human immune system and its functions and integration in the human body.
## History of immunology
Immunology is a science that examines the structure and function of the immune system. It originates from medicine and early studies on the causes of immunity to disease. The earliest known mention of immunity was during the plague of Athens in 430 BC. Thucydides (460–395 BC) noted that people who had recovered from a previous bout of some diseases could nurse the sick without contracting the illness a second time.
In the 18th century, Pierre-Louis Moreau de Maupertuis made experiments with scorpion venom and observed that certain dogs and mice were immune to this venom. This and other observations of acquired immunity led to Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) developing vaccination and the germ theory of disease. Pasteur's theory was in direct opposition to contemporary theories of disease, such as the miasma theory. It was not until the proofs Robert Koch (1843–1910) published in 1891 (for which he was awarded a Nobel Prize in 1905) that microorganisms were confirmed as the cause of infectious disease. Viruses were confirmed as human pathogens in 1901, when the yellow fever virus was discovered by Walter Reed (1851–1902).
Immunology made a great advance towards the end of the 19th century, through rapid developments, in the study of humoral immunity and cellular immunity. Particularly important was the work of Paul Ehrlich (1854–1915), who proposed the side-chain theory to explain the specificity of the antigen-antibody reaction. The Nobel Prize for 1908 was jointly awarded to Ehrlich and the founder of cellular immunology, Ilya Mechnikov (1845–1916).
The simplest form of immunity is the DNA restriction system in bacteria that prevents infection by bacteriophages.
## Related pages
- Lymphatic system
- White blood cell | high | false | false |
395 | Infinity | **Infinity** () is a [mathematical](467) concept which is about things that never end. It is written in a single digit. Infinity means many different things, depending on when it is used. The word is from [Latin](6592) origin, meaning "without end". Infinity goes on forever, so sometimes space, numbers, and other things are said to be 'infinite', because they never come to a stop.
Infinity is usually not an actual number, but it is sometimes used as one. Infinity often says how _many_ there is of something, instead of how _big_ something is. For example, there are infinitely many whole numbers (called [integer](7436)s), but there is no integer which is infinitely big. But different kinds of math have different kinds of infinity. So its meaning often changes.
There are two kinds of infinity: [potential](66480) infinity and actual infinity. Potential infinity is a process that never stops. For example, adding 10 to a number. No [matter](50759) how many times 10 is added, 10 more can still be added. Actual infinity, on the other hand, refers to objects that are accepted as infinite entities (such as [transfinite number](737905)s).j
## Infinity in Mathematics
[Mathematicians](14844) have different sizes of infinity and three different kinds of infinity.
### Counting infinity
The number of things, beginning with 0, 1, 2, 3, ..., to include infinite cardinal numbers. There are many different cardinal numbers. Infinity can be defined in one of two ways: Infinity is a number so big that a part of it can be of the same size; Infinity is larger than all of the natural numbers. There is a smallest infinite number, _countable infinity_. It is the counting number for all of the whole numbers. It is also the counting number of the rational numbers. The [mathematical notation](64272) is the Hebrew letter [aleph](140725) with a subscript zero; . It is spoken "[aleph null](238569)".
It was a surprise to learn that there are larger infinite numbers. The number of real numbers, that is, all numbers with decimals, is larger than the number of rational numbers, the number of fractions. This shows that there are real numbers which are not fractions. The smallest infinite number greater than is ([aleph one](370744)). The number of mathematical [functions](15006) is the next infinite cardinal number, .
And these numbers, called aleph numbers, go on without end.
### Ordering infinity
A different _type_ of infinity are the ordinal numbers, beginning "first, second, third, ...". The order "first, second, third, ..." and so on to infinity is _different_ from the order _ending_ "..., third, second, first". The difference is important for [mathematical induction](168158). The simple _first, second, third, ... _ has the mathematical name: the Greek letter omega with subscript zero: . (Or simply omega .) The infinite series ending "... third, second, first" is .
### The real line and complex plane
The third _type_ of infinity has the symbol . This is treated as addition to the real numbers or the complex numbers. It is the result of [division by zero](22964), or to indicate that a [series](8195) is increasing (or decreasing) without bound. The series 1, 2, 3, ... increases without upper bound. This is written: the limit is . In [calculus](161), the [integral](51162) over all real numbers is written:
## The arithmetic of infinity
Each kind of infinity has different rules.
### Addition, multiplication, exponentiation
Addition with "alephs" is commutative.
[Multiplication](482) with "alephs" is commutative.
.
. Addition with "omegas" is not commutative.
. Multiplication with "omegas" is not commutative.
### Subtraction, division
Division by infinity (for example, with omegas or alephs) is not meaningful. [Subtraction](733) with infinity is not meaningful.
## Related pages
- [Countable set](51867)
- [Eternity](399366)
- [Hilbert's paradox of the Grand Hotel](69124)
- [Riemann sphere](367206), complex plane with a point at infinity
- [Uncountable set](299777)
## Other websites
- _[A Crash Course in the Mathematics of Infinite Sets](http://www.earlham.edu/~peters/writing/infapp.htm) _, by Peter Suber. From the St. John's Review, XLIV, 2 (1998) 1-59. The stand-alone appendix to _Infinite Reflections_, below. A concise introduction to Cantor's mathematics of infinite sets.
- _[Infinite Reflections](http://www.earlham.edu/~peters/writing/infinity.htm) _, by Peter Suber. How Cantor's mathematics of the infinite solves a handful of ancient philosophical problems of the infinite. From the St. John's Review, XLIV, 2 (1998) 1-59.
- [_Infinity_, Principia Cybernetica](http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/INFINITY.html)
- [Hotel Infinity](http://www.c3.lanl.gov/mega-math/workbk/infinity/infinity.html)
- [The concepts of finiteness and infinity in philosophy](http://samvak.tripod.com/infinite.html) | **Infinity** () is a mathematical concept which is about things that never end. It is written in a single digit. Infinity means many different things, depending on when it is used. The word is from Latin origin, meaning "without end". Infinity goes on forever, so sometimes space, numbers, and other things are said to be 'infinite', because they never come to a stop.
Infinity is usually not an actual number, but it is sometimes used as one. Infinity often says how _many_ there is of something, instead of how _big_ something is. For example, there are infinitely many whole numbers (called integers), but there is no integer which is infinitely big. But different kinds of math have different kinds of infinity. So its meaning often changes.
There are two kinds of infinity: potential infinity and actual infinity. Potential infinity is a process that never stops. For example, adding 10 to a number. No matter how many times 10 is added, 10 more can still be added. Actual infinity, on the other hand, refers to objects that are accepted as infinite entities (such as transfinite numbers).j
## Infinity in Mathematics
Mathematicians have different sizes of infinity and three different kinds of infinity.
### Counting infinity
The number of things, beginning with 0, 1, 2, 3, ..., to include infinite cardinal numbers. There are many different cardinal numbers. Infinity can be defined in one of two ways: Infinity is a number so big that a part of it can be of the same size; Infinity is larger than all of the natural numbers. There is a smallest infinite number, _countable infinity_. It is the counting number for all of the whole numbers. It is also the counting number of the rational numbers. The mathematical notation is the Hebrew letter aleph with a subscript zero; . It is spoken "aleph null".
It was a surprise to learn that there are larger infinite numbers. The number of real numbers, that is, all numbers with decimals, is larger than the number of rational numbers, the number of fractions. This shows that there are real numbers which are not fractions. The smallest infinite number greater than is (aleph one). The number of mathematical functions is the next infinite cardinal number, .
And these numbers, called aleph numbers, go on without end.
### Ordering infinity
A different _type_ of infinity are the ordinal numbers, beginning "first, second, third, ...". The order "first, second, third, ..." and so on to infinity is _different_ from the order _ending_ "..., third, second, first". The difference is important for mathematical induction. The simple _first, second, third, ... _ has the mathematical name: the Greek letter omega with subscript zero: . (Or simply omega .) The infinite series ending "... third, second, first" is .
### The real line and complex plane
The third _type_ of infinity has the symbol . This is treated as addition to the real numbers or the complex numbers. It is the result of division by zero, or to indicate that a series is increasing (or decreasing) without bound. The series 1, 2, 3, ... increases without upper bound. This is written: the limit is . In calculus, the integral over all real numbers is written:
## The arithmetic of infinity
Each kind of infinity has different rules.
### Addition, multiplication, exponentiation
Addition with "alephs" is commutative.
Multiplication with "alephs" is commutative.
.
. Addition with "omegas" is not commutative.
. Multiplication with "omegas" is not commutative.
### Subtraction, division
Division by infinity (for example, with omegas or alephs) is not meaningful. Subtraction with infinity is not meaningful.
## Related pages
- Countable set
- Eternity
- Hilbert's paradox of the Grand Hotel
- Riemann sphere, complex plane with a point at infinity
- Uncountable set
## Other websites
- _A Crash Course in the Mathematics of Infinite Sets _, by Peter Suber. From the St. John's Review, XLIV, 2 (1998) 1-59. The stand-alone appendix to _Infinite Reflections_, below. A concise introduction to Cantor's mathematics of infinite sets.
- _Infinite Reflections _, by Peter Suber. How Cantor's mathematics of the infinite solves a handful of ancient philosophical problems of the infinite. From the St. John's Review, XLIV, 2 (1998) 1-59.
- _Infinity_, Principia Cybernetica
- Hotel Infinity
- The concepts of finiteness and infinity in philosophy | medium | false | false |
400 | January | **January** (Jan.) is the first [month](3641) of the [year](944) in the [Julian](12158) and [Gregorian calendar](12159)s, coming between [December](185) (of the previous year) and [February](262) (of the current year). It has 31 [day](3539)s.
January begins on the same day of the week as [October](569) in [common year](3974)s, and [April](1) and [July](402) in [leap year](434)s. January ends on the same day of the week as [February](262) and [October](569) in [common year](3974)s, and [July](402) in [leap year](434)s.
## The Month
January is named for [Janus](28352), the [Roman](26885) [god](305) of [door](19633)s and [gate](21415)s.
January and [February](262) were put on the [calendar](7517) after all the other months. This is because in the original [Roman calendar](606601), [winter](6643) did not have months. Although [March](468) was originally the first month, January became the new first month because that was when people chose the new [consul](41095)s (Roman leaders). The month has 31 days.
January is a [winter](6643) month in the [Northern Hemisphere](6829) and a [summer](3640) month in the [Southern Hemisphere](12161). In each [hemisphere](31981), it is the seasonal equivalent of [July](402) in the other. [Perihelion](18034), the point in its orbit where the [Earth](219) is closest to the [Sun](44408), also occurs in this month, between [January 2](9661) and [January 5](9662). January is the only month of the year that always has a "twin" - a month that both begins and ends on the same day of the week as it does. In a common year, this is [October](569), and in a leap year, [July](402).
January begins on the same day of the week as [October](569) in [common year](3974)s and on the same day of the week as [April](1) and [July](402) in [leap year](434)s. January ends on the same day of the week as [February](262) and [October](569) in [common year](3974)s and on the same day of the week as [July](402) in [leap year](434)s.
Every year, January both starts and finishes on the same day of the week as [May](469) of the previous year, as each other's first and last days are exactly 35 weeks (245 days) apart.
In common years immediately before other common years, January starts on the same day of the week as April and July of the following year, and in leap years and years immediately before that, September and December of the following year. In common years immediately before other common years, January finishes on the same day of the week as July of the following year, and in leap years and years immediately before that, April and December of the following year.
January's flower is the [carnation](69167) with its birthstone being the [garnet](64460).
The first day of January is called [New Year's Day](17588). It is said that it became this date when Roman consuls took office on this day in 153 BC. Different calendars across [Europe](216) made this the start of the New Year at different times, as some observed it on [March 25](9866).
Reaching over from [December](185), the [Christmas](3317) season in [Christianity](219595) also extends into this month. Eastern [church](60237)es celebrate [Christmas](3317) on [January 6](9669) or [January 7](9670), and [Epiphany](411081) on [January 18](9729) or [January 19](9730). In Western Christianity this occurs on [January 6](9669), with [Christmas](3317) occurring on [December 25](8745).
January 1 is celebrated the Solemnity of Mary, the Mother of God, that is a feast day of precept of the Blessed Virgin Mary.
### Fixed events
- [January 1](7503) – [New Year's Day](17588)
- [January 1](7503) – Solemnity of Mary, the Mother of God
- [January 1](7503) – World Day of Peace
- [January 1](7503) – Founding Day (Republic of China)
- [January 1](7503) – Independence Day in [Brunei](18029), [Haiti](15863) and [Sudan](15047)
- [January 1](7503) – Triumph of the Revolution ([Cuba](178))
- [January 1](7503) – [Constitution](173) Day ([Italy](363))
- [January 2](9661) – [New Year's Day](17588) Bank Holiday ([Scotland](3049))
- [January 2](9661) – Ancestry Day ([Haiti](15863))
- [January 2](9661) – Berchtold's Day ([Switzerland](2161), [Liechtenstein](3465), [Alsace](52356))
- [January 3](7887) – Statehood Day ([Alaska](3361))
- [January 4](8236) – Independence Day (Burma)
- [January 4](8236) – Day of the Fallen Against Colonial Repression ([Angola](53))
- [January 4](8236) – Day of the Martyrs ([Democratic Republic of the Congo](34328))
- [January 5](9662) – Twelfth Night in Western [Christianity](219595), night to [January 6](9669)
- [January 6](9669) – [Epiphany](411081) in Western Christianity.
- [January 6](9669) – [Christmas](3317) in the [Armenia](56)n Apostolic Church
- [January 7](9670) – [Christmas](3317) in Eastern Orthodox Christianity.
- [January 7](9670) – Tricolour Day ([Italy](363))
- [January 7](9670) – Victory from Genocide Day ([Cambodia](8493))
- [January 8](7554) – Commonwealth Day ([Northern Mariana Islands](16295))
- [January 8](7554) – Celebration of [Elvis Presley](7443)'s [birthday](22419) at [Graceland](72500)
- [January 8](7554) – [Kim Jong-un](332499)'s [birthday](22419) ([North Korea](4074))
- [January 9](7828) – Martyrs' Day ([Panama](6431))
- [January 11](9724) – Kagami Biraki ([Japan](403))
- [January 11](9724) – Republic Day ([Albania](3461))
- [January 11](9724) – Day of National Unity ([Nepal](14411))
- [January 12](9725) – [Memorial Day](30837) ([Turkmenistan](20205))
- [January 12](9725) – National Youth Day ([India](391))
- [January 12](9725) – [Zanzibar](63261) Revolution Day ([Tanzania](12839))
- [January 13](9726) – [Korea](2159)n American Day
- [January 13](9726) – Old New Year (parts of [Eastern Europe](45071))
- [January 13](9726) – St. Knut's Day ([Norway](3460), [Finland](292), [Sweden](2136))
- [January 14](9727) – [New Year's Day](17588) (Eastern Orothodox Church)
- [January 14](9727) – National Flag Day in [Georgia](14986)
- [January 14](9727) – National Forest Conservation Day ([Thailand](10138))
- [January 15](8734) – Armed Forces Day ([Nigeria](34325))
- [January 15](8734) – Army Day ([India](391))
- [January 15](8734) – Tree Planting Day ([Egypt](248))
- [January 16](9728) – Teacher's Day ([Thailand](10138))
- [January 16](9728) – Flag Day ([Israel](64543))
- [January 17](9470) – Roman Catholic feast day of St. Anthony
- [January 18](9729) – Royal [Thai](10138) Armed Forces Day
- [January 18](9729) – Revolution Day ([Tunisia](7472))
- [January 18](9729) – World [Religion](653) Day
- [January 19](9730) – [Epiphany](411081) in Eastern Orthodox Christianity
- [January 20](9731) – Armed Forces Day ([Mali](19308))
- [January 20](9731) – Martyrs' Day ([Azerbaijan](6370))
- [January 20](9731) – Inauguration Day ([United States](219587)) - newly elected US president takes office in a year after a [leap year](434) (last in [2021](188999), next in [2025](189004))
- [January 21](9735) – Flag Day ([Quebec](649))
- [January 21](9735) – Christian feast day of St. Agnes.
- [January 22](9736) – [Wellington](5770) Anniversary ([New Zealand](5072))
- [January 22](9736) – Reunion Day ([Ukraine](3464))
- [January 23](9737) – National [Pie](32248) Day ([United States](219587))
- [January 23](9737) – Bounty Day (Pitcairn Island)
- [January 24](7872) – Feast Day of Our Lady of Peace (Roman Catholicism)
- [January 24](7872) – Unification Day ([Romania](2124))
- [January 25](5132) – [Burns Night](443869) ([Scotland](3049) and Scottish communities), celebrating the birthday of Scottish [poet](17913) [Robert Burns](60879)
- [January 25](5132) – Dydd Santes Dwynwen ([Welsh](3048) equivalent of [Valentine's Day](19763))
- [January 25](5132) – National Voters Day ([India](391))
- [January 25](5132) – Tatiana Day ([Russia](2964))
- [January 26](9836) – [Australia Day](285353)
- [January 26](9836) – Republic Day ([India](391))
- [January 26](9836) – Duarte Day ([Dominican Republic](15648))
- [January 26](9836) – Liberation Day ([Uganda](15518))
- [January 27](9837) – Holocaust Memorial Day
- [January 28](9807) – Army Day ([Armenia](56))
- [January 28](9807) – EU Data Privacy Day
- [January 28](9807) – Unofficial day commemorating [Charlemagne](15452) by some Christians
- [January 30](7732) – Martyrs' Day ([India](391))
- [January 30](7732) – School Day of Non-Violence and Peace ([Spain](219832))
- [January 31](5167) – Independence Day ([Nauru](542))
### Month-long or moveable events
- Coming of Age Day ([Japan](403)), second [Monday](4010) in January
- Martin Luther King, Jr. Day ([United States](219587)), third Monday in January, commemorating [civil rights](44495) activist Martin Luther King, Jr., who was born on [January 15](8734).
- [Chinese New Year](84801) (between [January 21](9735) and [February 21](7727))
- [Australian Open](86448) - One of the major Grand Slam [tennis](20314) tournaments. Starts between [January 13](9726) and [January 19](9730), ends between [January 26](9836) and [February 1](9838).
- [Auckland](12442) Anniversary ([New Zealand](5072)) on a Monday between [January 26](9836) and [February 1](9838).
- Weight Loss Awareness Month ([United States](219587))
- National Mentoring Month ([United States](219587))
## Selection of historical events
- [January 1](7503), 153 BC – [Roman](655) consuls are said to have taken office on this day for the first time.
- [January 1](7503), [1801](16385) – The [United Kingdom](856) is created, with the inclusion of [Ireland](361).
- [January 1](7503), [1804](7895) – [Haiti](15863) becomes the second independent country in the Americas, after the [US](720016).
- [January 1](7503), [1901](15865) – [Australia](27) is given self-government.
- [January 1](7503), [1956](8427) – [Sudan](15047) becomes independent.
- [January 1](7503), [1959](9558) – [Fidel Castro](7169) takes over in [Cuba](178).
- [January 1](7503), [1962](8737) – [Samoa](10532) becomes independent.
- [January 1](7503), [1984](9264) – [Brunei](18029) becomes independent.
- [January 1](7503), [2002](3953) – The [Euro](2139) currency comes into use in 12 EU countries.
- [January 2](9661), [1492](9455) – Spanish [Reconquista](137065): [Granada](20279), the last Moorish stronghold, surrenders.
- [January 3](7887), [1868](16324) – [Meiji Restoration](32471) in [Japan](403).
- [January 3](7887), [1959](9558) – [Alaska](3361) becomes the 49th [US](720016) State.
- [January 4](8236), [1948](7177) – Burma becomes independent.
- [January 4](8236), [2010](14361) – The world's tallest building, the [Burj Khalifa](90826) in [Dubai](21931), opens.
- [January 5](9662), [1066](11672) – [Edward the Confessor](41492), [King](410) of [England](3047), dies.
- [January 6](9669), [1066](11672) – [Harold Godwinson](44402) is crowned [King](410) of [England](3047).
- [January 7](9670), [1610](32159) – [Galileo Galilei](4052) discovers Jupiter's four [Galilean moons](81658): [Io](78141), [Callisto](81583), [Ganymede](81581) and [Europa](32783).
- [January 7](9670), [1979](7474) – The [Khmer Rouge](31877) in [Cambodia](8493) is overthrown by [Vietnam](5075)ese troops.
- [January 7](9670), [1989](3967) – [Japan](403)ese [Emperor](9224) [Hirohito](24294) dies, aged 87.
- [January 7](9670), [2015](188993) – [Charlie Hebdo shooting](475922) in [Paris](4467).
- [January 8](7554), [1642](9208) – [Galileo Galilei](4052) dies.
- [January 8](7554), [1912](9821) – The [African National Congress](288664) is founded.
- [January 8](7554), [1935](8260) – [Elvis Presley](7443) is born.
- [January 10](9273), [1863](11698) – The first section of the [London Underground](8157) opens.
- [January 12](9725), [2010](14361) – The [2010 Haiti earthquake](222833) causes many deaths and destruction across [Haiti](15863).
- [January 13](9726), [1915](11701) – The Avezzano [earthquake](2081) in [Italy](363) kills 29,800 people.
- [January 13](9726), [1935](8260) – Most voters in [Saarland](2969) choose to be part of [Germany](219828).
- [January 14](9727), [1954](7863) – [Marilyn Monroe](44131) marries [Joe DiMaggio](54924).
- [January 14](9727), [1972](7473) – [Margrethe II of Denmark](21394) becomes the first Danish Queen since [1412](33707).
- [January 15](8734), [1929](2897) – Civil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr. is born in [Atlanta](5031), [Georgia](4951), [US](720016).
- [January 15](8734), [2001](3854) – [Wikipedia](27263) goes online.
- [January 15](8734), [2009](3992) – [US Airways Flight 1549](177541) is safely landed on the [Hudson River](40122) in [New York City](566) by Chesley Sullenberger, after experiencing difficulties shortly after take-off.
- [January 16](9728), [2006](3965) – Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf of [Liberia](12333) becomes the first female [President](4044) in [Africa](1942).
- [January 17](9470), [1893](10469) – American and European [sugar](9642) planters overthrow the government of Queen Liliuokalani of [Hawaii](332).
- [January 17](9470), [1912](9821) – [Robert Falcon Scott](267403)'s expedition reaches the [South Pole](1977) over a month after that of [Roald Amundsen](4634).
- [January 17](9470), [1991](3963) – Operation Desert Storm in the [Gulf War](15602).
- [January 17](9470), [1995](3959) – The Great Hanshin [earthquake](2081) strikes [Japan](403), mainly the city of Kobe, killing over 6,000 people.
- [January 18](9729), [1778](19999) – [James Cook](19761) reaches the [Hawaii](332)an Islands.
- [January 20](9731), [1936](8715) – King George V of the United Kingdom dies, leaving the throne to Edward VIII of the United Kingdom, who lasts less than 11 months in the post.
- [January 20](9731), [2009](3992) – [Barack Obama](223430) becomes the first African American [President of the United States](7174).
- [January 21](9735), [1793](20341) – King Louis XVI of France is executed by [guillotine](21256).
- [January 22](9736), [1901](15865) – [Queen Victoria](7359) dies aged 81, ending Britain's Victorian Era.
- [January 22](9736), [1968](8340) – [Apollo 5](321538) lifts off, carrying the first [lunar](107799) module.
- [January 23](9737), [1960](8426) – In the Bathyscaphe _Trieste_, Jacques Piccard and Don Walsh, dive to the deepest point of the [Pacific Ocean](1975), the Challenger Deep in the [Mariana Trench](21358).
- [January 24](7872), [41](25686) – Roman Emperor [Caligula](93455) is assassinated by the Praetorian Guard.
- [January 24](7872), [1965](2983) – British [statesman](56217) [Winston Churchill](8471) dies.
- [January 24](7872), [1986](9266) – [Voyager 2](67147) flies by the [planet](639) Uranus.
- [January 25](5132), [1919](10181) – The [League of Nations](27711) is founded.
- [January 25](5132), [2011](31950) – The 2011 Egyptian protests begin.
- [January 26](9836), [1788](5153) – The first British fleet arrives in what is now [Sydney](4743) Harbour, [Australia](27).
- [January 26](9836), [1950](7184) – [India](391) becomes a [Republic](4978).
- [January 26](9836), [2020](178089) – NBA legend [Kobe Bryant](223006), his 13-year-old daughter Gianna and seven others are killed in a helicopter crash in [Calabasas, California](456690).
- [January 27](9837), [1945](4629) – The [Red Army](90595) liberates Auschwitz.
- [January 27](9837), [1967](3057) – US [astronaut](4783)s Gus Grissom, Edward White and Roger Chaffee are killed in a [fire](9476) while testing the [Apollo 1](320685) spacecraft.
- [January 28](9807), [1897](15868) – The Criminal Tribes Act of 1871 was amended by the [British Raj](29271) within British India respectively.
- [January 28](9807), [1935](8260) – [Iceland](2979) becomes the first country to legalize [abortion](13804).
- [January 28](9807), [1986](9266) – The [Space Shuttle Challenger](92465) explodes shortly after take-off from [Cape Canaveral, Florida](152522), killing all seven astronauts on board.
- [January 29](8376), [1996](3958) – [Venice](5198)'s La Fenice [opera](89423) house is destroyed by [fire](9476).
- [January 30](7732), [1649](34115) – King [Charles I of England](25454) is executed.
- [January 30](7732), [1933](3013) – [Adolf Hitler](4457) comes to power in [Germany](219828).
- [January 30](7732), [1948](7177) – Indian independence and non-violence campaigner [Mahatma Gandhi](3576) is shot dead by a Hindu extremist in [Delhi](22106).
- [January 31](5167), [1968](8340) – [Nauru](542) becomes independent from [Australia](27).
- [January 31](5167), [1990](8905) – [Moscow](2965)'s first [McDonald's](17305) restaurant opens.
## Trivia
- January is named after the Roman God [Janus](28352), who was the Roman God of [door](19633)s and [gate](21415)s.
- January and July are the only pair of 31-day month's that are exactly six months apart. In the English language, they are also the only pair of months to both begin and end with the same letters (J and Y respectively).
- The star signs for January are Capricorn ([December 22](6825) to [January 20](9731)) and Aquarius ([January 21](9735) to [February 19](9844)).
- It is the coldest month in the [Northern Hemisphere](6829), and the warmest in the [Southern Hemisphere](12161).
- It is one of three months in the [English language](2843) to begin with "J", along with [June](401) and [July](402), but unlike the latter two, does not have a "U" as a second letter. | **January** (Jan.) is the first month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars, coming between December (of the previous year) and February (of the current year). It has 31 days.
January begins on the same day of the week as October in common years, and April and July in leap years. January ends on the same day of the week as February and October in common years, and July in leap years.
## The Month
January is named for Janus, the Roman god of doors and gates.
January and February were put on the calendar after all the other months. This is because in the original Roman calendar, winter did not have months. Although March was originally the first month, January became the new first month because that was when people chose the new consuls (Roman leaders). The month has 31 days.
January is a winter month in the Northern Hemisphere and a summer month in the Southern Hemisphere. In each hemisphere, it is the seasonal equivalent of July in the other. Perihelion, the point in its orbit where the Earth is closest to the Sun, also occurs in this month, between January 2 and January 5. January is the only month of the year that always has a "twin" - a month that both begins and ends on the same day of the week as it does. In a common year, this is October, and in a leap year, July.
January begins on the same day of the week as October in common years and on the same day of the week as April and July in leap years. January ends on the same day of the week as February and October in common years and on the same day of the week as July in leap years.
Every year, January both starts and finishes on the same day of the week as May of the previous year, as each other's first and last days are exactly 35 weeks (245 days) apart.
In common years immediately before other common years, January starts on the same day of the week as April and July of the following year, and in leap years and years immediately before that, September and December of the following year. In common years immediately before other common years, January finishes on the same day of the week as July of the following year, and in leap years and years immediately before that, April and December of the following year.
January's flower is the carnation with its birthstone being the garnet.
The first day of January is called New Year's Day. It is said that it became this date when Roman consuls took office on this day in 153 BC. Different calendars across Europe made this the start of the New Year at different times, as some observed it on March 25.
Reaching over from December, the Christmas season in Christianity also extends into this month. Eastern churches celebrate Christmas on January 6 or January 7, and Epiphany on January 18 or January 19. In Western Christianity this occurs on January 6, with Christmas occurring on December 25.
January 1 is celebrated the Solemnity of Mary, the Mother of God, that is a feast day of precept of the Blessed Virgin Mary.
### Fixed events
- January 1 – New Year's Day
- January 1 – Solemnity of Mary, the Mother of God
- January 1 – World Day of Peace
- January 1 – Founding Day (Republic of China)
- January 1 – Independence Day in Brunei, Haiti and Sudan
- January 1 – Triumph of the Revolution (Cuba)
- January 1 – Constitution Day (Italy)
- January 2 – New Year's Day Bank Holiday (Scotland)
- January 2 – Ancestry Day (Haiti)
- January 2 – Berchtold's Day (Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Alsace)
- January 3 – Statehood Day (Alaska)
- January 4 – Independence Day (Burma)
- January 4 – Day of the Fallen Against Colonial Repression (Angola)
- January 4 – Day of the Martyrs (Democratic Republic of the Congo)
- January 5 – Twelfth Night in Western Christianity, night to January 6
- January 6 – Epiphany in Western Christianity.
- January 6 – Christmas in the Armenian Apostolic Church
- January 7 – Christmas in Eastern Orthodox Christianity.
- January 7 – Tricolour Day (Italy)
- January 7 – Victory from Genocide Day (Cambodia)
- January 8 – Commonwealth Day (Northern Mariana Islands)
- January 8 – Celebration of Elvis Presley's birthday at Graceland
- January 8 – Kim Jong-un's birthday (North Korea)
- January 9 – Martyrs' Day (Panama)
- January 11 – Kagami Biraki (Japan)
- January 11 – Republic Day (Albania)
- January 11 – Day of National Unity (Nepal)
- January 12 – Memorial Day (Turkmenistan)
- January 12 – National Youth Day (India)
- January 12 – Zanzibar Revolution Day (Tanzania)
- January 13 – Korean American Day
- January 13 – Old New Year (parts of Eastern Europe)
- January 13 – St. Knut's Day (Norway, Finland, Sweden)
- January 14 – New Year's Day (Eastern Orothodox Church)
- January 14 – National Flag Day in Georgia
- January 14 – National Forest Conservation Day (Thailand)
- January 15 – Armed Forces Day (Nigeria)
- January 15 – Army Day (India)
- January 15 – Tree Planting Day (Egypt)
- January 16 – Teacher's Day (Thailand)
- January 16 – Flag Day (Israel)
- January 17 – Roman Catholic feast day of St. Anthony
- January 18 – Royal Thai Armed Forces Day
- January 18 – Revolution Day (Tunisia)
- January 18 – World Religion Day
- January 19 – Epiphany in Eastern Orthodox Christianity
- January 20 – Armed Forces Day (Mali)
- January 20 – Martyrs' Day (Azerbaijan)
- January 20 – Inauguration Day (United States) - newly elected US president takes office in a year after a leap year (last in 2021, next in 2025)
- January 21 – Flag Day (Quebec)
- January 21 – Christian feast day of St. Agnes.
- January 22 – Wellington Anniversary (New Zealand)
- January 22 – Reunion Day (Ukraine)
- January 23 – National Pie Day (United States)
- January 23 – Bounty Day (Pitcairn Island)
- January 24 – Feast Day of Our Lady of Peace (Roman Catholicism)
- January 24 – Unification Day (Romania)
- January 25 – Burns Night (Scotland and Scottish communities), celebrating the birthday of Scottish poet Robert Burns
- January 25 – Dydd Santes Dwynwen (Welsh equivalent of Valentine's Day)
- January 25 – National Voters Day (India)
- January 25 – Tatiana Day (Russia)
- January 26 – Australia Day
- January 26 – Republic Day (India)
- January 26 – Duarte Day (Dominican Republic)
- January 26 – Liberation Day (Uganda)
- January 27 – Holocaust Memorial Day
- January 28 – Army Day (Armenia)
- January 28 – EU Data Privacy Day
- January 28 – Unofficial day commemorating Charlemagne by some Christians
- January 30 – Martyrs' Day (India)
- January 30 – School Day of Non-Violence and Peace (Spain)
- January 31 – Independence Day (Nauru)
### Month-long or moveable events
- Coming of Age Day (Japan), second Monday in January
- Martin Luther King, Jr. Day (United States), third Monday in January, commemorating civil rights activist Martin Luther King, Jr., who was born on January 15.
- Chinese New Year (between January 21 and February 21)
- Australian Open - One of the major Grand Slam tennis tournaments. Starts between January 13 and January 19, ends between January 26 and February 1.
- Auckland Anniversary (New Zealand) on a Monday between January 26 and February 1.
- Weight Loss Awareness Month (United States)
- National Mentoring Month (United States)
## Selection of historical events
- January 1, 153 BC – Roman consuls are said to have taken office on this day for the first time.
- January 1, 1801 – The United Kingdom is created, with the inclusion of Ireland.
- January 1, 1804 – Haiti becomes the second independent country in the Americas, after the US.
- January 1, 1901 – Australia is given self-government.
- January 1, 1956 – Sudan becomes independent.
- January 1, 1959 – Fidel Castro takes over in Cuba.
- January 1, 1962 – Samoa becomes independent.
- January 1, 1984 – Brunei becomes independent.
- January 1, 2002 – The Euro currency comes into use in 12 EU countries.
- January 2, 1492 – Spanish Reconquista: Granada, the last Moorish stronghold, surrenders.
- January 3, 1868 – Meiji Restoration in Japan.
- January 3, 1959 – Alaska becomes the 49th US State.
- January 4, 1948 – Burma becomes independent.
- January 4, 2010 – The world's tallest building, the Burj Khalifa in Dubai, opens.
- January 5, 1066 – Edward the Confessor, King of England, dies.
- January 6, 1066 – Harold Godwinson is crowned King of England.
- January 7, 1610 – Galileo Galilei discovers Jupiter's four Galilean moons: Io, Callisto, Ganymede and Europa.
- January 7, 1979 – The Khmer Rouge in Cambodia is overthrown by Vietnamese troops.
- January 7, 1989 – Japanese Emperor Hirohito dies, aged 87.
- January 7, 2015 – Charlie Hebdo shooting in Paris.
- January 8, 1642 – Galileo Galilei dies.
- January 8, 1912 – The African National Congress is founded.
- January 8, 1935 – Elvis Presley is born.
- January 10, 1863 – The first section of the London Underground opens.
- January 12, 2010 – The 2010 Haiti earthquake causes many deaths and destruction across Haiti.
- January 13, 1915 – The Avezzano earthquake in Italy kills 29,800 people.
- January 13, 1935 – Most voters in Saarland choose to be part of Germany.
- January 14, 1954 – Marilyn Monroe marries Joe DiMaggio.
- January 14, 1972 – Margrethe II of Denmark becomes the first Danish Queen since 1412.
- January 15, 1929 – Civil rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr. is born in Atlanta, Georgia, US.
- January 15, 2001 – Wikipedia goes online.
- January 15, 2009 – US Airways Flight 1549 is safely landed on the Hudson River in New York City by Chesley Sullenberger, after experiencing difficulties shortly after take-off.
- January 16, 2006 – Ellen Johnson-Sirleaf of Liberia becomes the first female President in Africa.
- January 17, 1893 – American and European sugar planters overthrow the government of Queen Liliuokalani of Hawaii.
- January 17, 1912 – Robert Falcon Scott's expedition reaches the South Pole over a month after that of Roald Amundsen.
- January 17, 1991 – Operation Desert Storm in the Gulf War.
- January 17, 1995 – The Great Hanshin earthquake strikes Japan, mainly the city of Kobe, killing over 6,000 people.
- January 18, 1778 – James Cook reaches the Hawaiian Islands.
- January 20, 1936 – King George V of the United Kingdom dies, leaving the throne to Edward VIII of the United Kingdom, who lasts less than 11 months in the post.
- January 20, 2009 – Barack Obama becomes the first African American President of the United States.
- January 21, 1793 – King Louis XVI of France is executed by guillotine.
- January 22, 1901 – Queen Victoria dies aged 81, ending Britain's Victorian Era.
- January 22, 1968 – Apollo 5 lifts off, carrying the first lunar module.
- January 23, 1960 – In the Bathyscaphe _Trieste_, Jacques Piccard and Don Walsh, dive to the deepest point of the Pacific Ocean, the Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench.
- January 24, 41 – Roman Emperor Caligula is assassinated by the Praetorian Guard.
- January 24, 1965 – British statesman Winston Churchill dies.
- January 24, 1986 – Voyager 2 flies by the planet Uranus.
- January 25, 1919 – The League of Nations is founded.
- January 25, 2011 – The 2011 Egyptian protests begin.
- January 26, 1788 – The first British fleet arrives in what is now Sydney Harbour, Australia.
- January 26, 1950 – India becomes a Republic.
- January 26, 2020 – NBA legend Kobe Bryant, his 13-year-old daughter Gianna and seven others are killed in a helicopter crash in Calabasas, California.
- January 27, 1945 – The Red Army liberates Auschwitz.
- January 27, 1967 – US astronauts Gus Grissom, Edward White and Roger Chaffee are killed in a fire while testing the Apollo 1 spacecraft.
- January 28, 1897 – The Criminal Tribes Act of 1871 was amended by the British Raj within British India respectively.
- January 28, 1935 – Iceland becomes the first country to legalize abortion.
- January 28, 1986 – The Space Shuttle Challenger explodes shortly after take-off from Cape Canaveral, Florida, killing all seven astronauts on board.
- January 29, 1996 – Venice's La Fenice opera house is destroyed by fire.
- January 30, 1649 – King Charles I of England is executed.
- January 30, 1933 – Adolf Hitler comes to power in Germany.
- January 30, 1948 – Indian independence and non-violence campaigner Mahatma Gandhi is shot dead by a Hindu extremist in Delhi.
- January 31, 1968 – Nauru becomes independent from Australia.
- January 31, 1990 – Moscow's first McDonald's restaurant opens.
## Trivia
- January is named after the Roman God Janus, who was the Roman God of doors and gates.
- January and July are the only pair of 31-day month's that are exactly six months apart. In the English language, they are also the only pair of months to both begin and end with the same letters (J and Y respectively).
- The star signs for January are Capricorn (December 22 to January 20) and Aquarius (January 21 to February 19).
- It is the coldest month in the Northern Hemisphere, and the warmest in the Southern Hemisphere.
- It is one of three months in the English language to begin with "J", along with June and July, but unlike the latter two, does not have a "U" as a second letter. | high | false | false |
401 | June | **June** (Jun.) is the sixth [month](3641) of the [year](944) in the [Julian](12158) and [Gregorian calendar](12159)s, coming between [May](469) and [July](402). It has 30 [day](3539)s. June is named for the [Roman goddess](26885) [Juno](28988), the wife of [Jupiter](5251).
June never begins on the same day of the week as any other month, but always ends on the same day of the week as [March](468).
## The Month
June comes between [May](469) and [July](402) and is the sixth month of the year in the [Gregorian calendar](12159). It is one of four months to have 30 days.
No other month of any year begins on the same day of the week as June: this month and May are the only two months with this property. June ends on the same day of the week as [March](468) every year, as each other's last days are 13 weeks (91 days) apart.In common years, June starts on the same day of the week as [September](684) and [December](185) of the previous year, and in leap years, [April](1) and [July](402) of the previous year. In common years, June finishes on the same day of the week as September of the previous year, and in leap years, April and December of the previous year.
Every year, June starts on the same day of the week as [February](262) of the following year, as each other's first days are exactly 35 weeks (245 days) apart. In years immediately before common years, June starts on the same day of the week as [March](468) and [November](530) of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, [August](2) of the following year. In years immediately before common years, June finishes on the same day of the week as August and November of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, [May](469) of the following year.
June is one of two months to have a [solstice](16611) (the other is [December](185), its seasonal equivalent in both [hemisphere](31981)s), and in this month the [Tropic of Cancer](21281) in the [Northern Hemisphere](6829) is turned towards the [Sun](44408), meaning that [June 20](8235) or [June 21](8412) is the Northern [Summer Solstice](108080) and the Southern [Winter Solstice](108078). This means that this date would have the most daylight of any day in the [Northern hemisphere](6829), and the least in the [Southern Hemisphere](12161). There are 24 hours of daylight at the [North Pole](2028) and 24 hours of darkness at the [South Pole](1977).
## Events in June
- In the Catholic Church the month of June is dedicated to the [Sacred Heart](44126) of Jesus.
- The [solstice](16611) occurs around [June 21](8412), but it may occur on either the [20th](8235) or the [22nd](10033). It is the [summer](3640) solstice in the northern hemisphere and the [winter](6643) solstice in the southern hemisphere.
- Midsummer is celebrated in [Sweden](2136) on the third [Friday](5783) in June.
- [Father's Day](332588) is celebrated in the [United States](219587) on the third [Sunday](3837) in June.
- In the United States, the National Safety Council established June as National Safety Month, with the objective to increase the awareness of all people in the country of the main safety and health risks.
- Gay pride celebrations happen in many countries, in honour of the [Stonewall riots](293416).
- [World](6369) [Environment](13637) Day is celebrated on [June 5](8166).
- World [Ocean](103595) Day is celebrated on [June 8](9922).
- June Holiday (Lá Saoire i mí Mheitheamh) in the [Republic of Ireland](5074) is celebrated on [June 1](6644)
- Queen's Official Birthday in [New Zealand](5072), [Cook Islands](31008) and [Western Australia](37520) is celebrated on June 1
- Western Australia Day is celebrated on June 1
- Global Running Day is celebrated on June 3
- [World bicycle day](700735) is celebrated on [June 3](9920)
- [Labour Day](30830) in the [Bahamas](10487) is celebrated on [June 5](8166)
- National Doughnut Day is celebrated on [June 5](8166)
- National Trails Day in the United States is celebrated on June 5
- Armed Forces Day in [Canada](219589) is celebrated on [June 7](9923)
- [Children's Day](523160) in the United States is celebrated on June 7
- [Father's Day](332588) in [Lithuania](4099) and [Switzerland](2161) is celebrated on June 7
- National Cancer Survivors Day in the United States is celebrated on June 7
- Teacher's Day in [Hungary](3462) is celebrated on June 7
- The Seamen's Day in [Iceland](2979) is celebrated on June 7
- Queen's Official Birthday in [Papua New Guinea](26947), [Solomon Islands](15905) and [Australia](27), except Western Australia is celebrated on June 8
- Seersucker Thursday in the United States is celebrated on [June 11](9827)
- China's Cultural Heritage Day in [China](120) is celebrated on [June 13](10022)
- [National Day](165514) in [Montserrat](18309), [Pitcairn Islands](31372), [Saint Helena](20545), [South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands](25785), [Tristan da Cunha](70127) in the [United Kingdom](856) is celebrated on June 13
- Queen's Official Birthday in the United Kingdom and [Tuvalu](4648) is celebrated on June 13
- Canadian Rivers Day is celebrated on [June 14](10023)
- Father's Day in [Austria](55) and [Belgium](103) is celebrated on June 14
- [Mother's Day](332593) in [Luxembourg](2906) is celebrated on June 14
- Queen's Official Birthday in the [Norfolk Island](30213) is celebrated on [June 15](10024)
- World Bisexuality Awareness Day in the United States is celebrated on [June 15](10024)
- National Flip Flop Day in the United States is celebrated on [June 19](10028)
- International Surfing Day is celebrated on [June 20](8235)
- International Yoga Day is celebrated on June 20
- World Music Day is celebrated on June 20
- Father's Day in [Afghanistan](52), [Albania](3461), [Antigua](79880), [Barbuda](79896), [Argentina](54), [Aruba](20262), [Bahamas](10487), [Bahrain](12658), [Bangladesh](15790), [Barbados](11471), [Belize](8284), [Bermuda](20612), [Brunei](18029), [Cambodia](8493), [Canada](219589), [Chile](4008), [Colombia](6351), [Costa Rica](12411), [Cuba](178), [Curaçao](311115), [Cyprus](4097), [Czech Republic](6439), [Dominica](9214), [Ecuador](11243), [Ethiopia](10484), [France](291), [Ghana](12447), [Greece](2133), [Guatemala](10298), [Guyana](11622), [Hong Kong](4860), [Hungary](3462), [India](391), [Ireland](361), [Jamaica](11218), [Japan](403), [Kenya](3440), [Kosovo](40777), [Kuwait](9181), [Laos](5789), [Macau](17171), [Madagascar](7776), [Malaysia](7476), [Maldives](21696), [Malta](4100), [Mauritius](19287), [Mexico](1935), [Mozambique](12338), [Namibia](8250), [Netherlands](3463), [Nigeria](34325), [Oman](21602), [Pakistan](5071), [Panama](6431), [Paraguay](11418), [People's Republic of China](600), [Peru](2915), [Philippines](5103), [Qatar](15245), [Saint Lucia](20412), [Saint Vincent and the Grenadines](18322), [Saudi Arabia](6350), [Singapore](5909), [Slovakia](3467), [South Africa](3528), [Sri Lanka](15886), [Suriname](16545), [Trinidad and Tobago](17751), [Tunisia](7472), [Turkey](2860), [United Kingdom](856), [United States](219587), [Venezuela](6349), [Vietnam](5075), [Zambia](15643) and [Zimbabwe](7961) is celebrated on [June 21](8412)
- National Bomb Pop Day in the United States is celebrated on [June 25](10021)
- Take Your Dog to Work Day in the United Kingdom and United States is celebrated on [June 26](10029)
- Armed Forces Day in the United Kingdom is celebrated on June 27
- [Inventors'](15229) and Rationalizers' Day in [Russia](2964) is celebrated on June 27
- [Veterans Day](30839) in the [Netherlands](3463) is celebrated on [June 27](10032)
- Father's Day in [Haiti](15863) is celebrated on [June 28](10031)
- Log Cabin Day in [Michigan](5034), United States is celebrated on June 28
- Mother's Day in [Kenya](3440) is celebrated on June 28
## Selection of Historical Events
[June 1](6644), [1794](9809): [French Revolutionary Wars](328160): The battle of the Glorious First of June is fought, the first naval engagement between [Britain](856) and [France](291).
[June 2](9919), [1953](7455): Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II of the [United Kingdom](856).
[June 3](9920), [1965](2983): The launch of [_Gemini 4_,](463051) the first multi-day space mission by a [NASA](24512) crew. [June 4](8726), [1783](8337): The [Montgolfier brothers](201883) publicly demonstrate their _montgolfière_ ([hot air balloon](169180)).
[June 5](8166), [1837](4663): [Houston](23948) is incorporated by the [Republic of Texas](87709).
[June 6](9918), [1844](4655): The [Young Men's Christian Association](354118) is founded in [London](460).
[June 7](9923), [1942](9213): [World War II](219837): [The Battle of Midway](69189) ends in American victory.
[June 8](9922), [1949](7183): [George Orwell](6236)'s _[Nineteen Eighty-Four](15204)_ is published.
[June 9](9921), [1944](10261): [World War II](219837): [Tulle massacre](853776)
[June 10](10020), [2003](3954): The _Spirit_ rover is launched for NASA's Mars Exploration mission
[June 11](9827), [2010](14361): [2010 FIFA World Cup](134923) (first African FIFA)
[June 12](9992), [2018](188997): [2018 North Korea-United States Summit](635899)
[June 13](10022), [1983](7634): _[Pioneer 10](119571)_ becomes the first man-made object to leave the central [Solar System](800)
[June 25](10021), [1950](7184): [Korean War](7537) starts.
[June 30](10030), [1908](11079): [Tunguska event](530999).
## Trivia
- June is one of two months that never begins on the same day of the week as any other months within any calendar year. ([May](469) is the other)
- The months of June and [July](402) both start with the "Ju" letter combination in the [English language](2843), and in some [language](419)s have only one letter's difference between their names.
- June's [flower](7947) is the [Rose](32262).
- Its birthstone is the [pearl](25111).
- The Zodiac signs for June are [Gemini](325806) (May 21 – June 20) and [Cancer](826189) (June 21 – July 21).
- At the [North Pole](2028), the [Sun](44408) does not set in June; at the [South Pole](1977), it does not rise. | **June** (Jun.) is the sixth month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars, coming between May and July. It has 30 days. June is named for the Roman goddess Juno, the wife of Jupiter.
June never begins on the same day of the week as any other month, but always ends on the same day of the week as March.
## The Month
June comes between May and July and is the sixth month of the year in the Gregorian calendar. It is one of four months to have 30 days.
No other month of any year begins on the same day of the week as June: this month and May are the only two months with this property. June ends on the same day of the week as March every year, as each other's last days are 13 weeks (91 days) apart.In common years, June starts on the same day of the week as September and December of the previous year, and in leap years, April and July of the previous year. In common years, June finishes on the same day of the week as September of the previous year, and in leap years, April and December of the previous year.
Every year, June starts on the same day of the week as February of the following year, as each other's first days are exactly 35 weeks (245 days) apart. In years immediately before common years, June starts on the same day of the week as March and November of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, August of the following year. In years immediately before common years, June finishes on the same day of the week as August and November of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, May of the following year.
June is one of two months to have a solstice (the other is December, its seasonal equivalent in both hemispheres), and in this month the Tropic of Cancer in the Northern Hemisphere is turned towards the Sun, meaning that June 20 or June 21 is the Northern Summer Solstice and the Southern Winter Solstice. This means that this date would have the most daylight of any day in the Northern hemisphere, and the least in the Southern Hemisphere. There are 24 hours of daylight at the North Pole and 24 hours of darkness at the South Pole.
## Events in June
- In the Catholic Church the month of June is dedicated to the Sacred Heart of Jesus.
- The solstice occurs around June 21, but it may occur on either the 20th or the 22nd. It is the summer solstice in the northern hemisphere and the winter solstice in the southern hemisphere.
- Midsummer is celebrated in Sweden on the third Friday in June.
- Father's Day is celebrated in the United States on the third Sunday in June.
- In the United States, the National Safety Council established June as National Safety Month, with the objective to increase the awareness of all people in the country of the main safety and health risks.
- Gay pride celebrations happen in many countries, in honour of the Stonewall riots.
- World Environment Day is celebrated on June 5.
- World Ocean Day is celebrated on June 8.
- June Holiday (Lá Saoire i mí Mheitheamh) in the Republic of Ireland is celebrated on June 1
- Queen's Official Birthday in New Zealand, Cook Islands and Western Australia is celebrated on June 1
- Western Australia Day is celebrated on June 1
- Global Running Day is celebrated on June 3
- World bicycle day is celebrated on June 3
- Labour Day in the Bahamas is celebrated on June 5
- National Doughnut Day is celebrated on June 5
- National Trails Day in the United States is celebrated on June 5
- Armed Forces Day in Canada is celebrated on June 7
- Children's Day in the United States is celebrated on June 7
- Father's Day in Lithuania and Switzerland is celebrated on June 7
- National Cancer Survivors Day in the United States is celebrated on June 7
- Teacher's Day in Hungary is celebrated on June 7
- The Seamen's Day in Iceland is celebrated on June 7
- Queen's Official Birthday in Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands and Australia, except Western Australia is celebrated on June 8
- Seersucker Thursday in the United States is celebrated on June 11
- China's Cultural Heritage Day in China is celebrated on June 13
- National Day in Montserrat, Pitcairn Islands, Saint Helena, South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands, Tristan da Cunha in the United Kingdom is celebrated on June 13
- Queen's Official Birthday in the United Kingdom and Tuvalu is celebrated on June 13
- Canadian Rivers Day is celebrated on June 14
- Father's Day in Austria and Belgium is celebrated on June 14
- Mother's Day in Luxembourg is celebrated on June 14
- Queen's Official Birthday in the Norfolk Island is celebrated on June 15
- World Bisexuality Awareness Day in the United States is celebrated on June 15
- National Flip Flop Day in the United States is celebrated on June 19
- International Surfing Day is celebrated on June 20
- International Yoga Day is celebrated on June 20
- World Music Day is celebrated on June 20
- Father's Day in Afghanistan, Albania, Antigua, Barbuda, Argentina, Aruba, Bahamas, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Barbados, Belize, Bermuda, Brunei, Cambodia, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Curaçao, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Dominica, Ecuador, Ethiopia, France, Ghana, Greece, Guatemala, Guyana, Hong Kong, Hungary, India, Ireland, Jamaica, Japan, Kenya, Kosovo, Kuwait, Laos, Macau, Madagascar, Malaysia, Maldives, Malta, Mauritius, Mexico, Mozambique, Namibia, Netherlands, Nigeria, Oman, Pakistan, Panama, Paraguay, People's Republic of China, Peru, Philippines, Qatar, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Slovakia, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, Tunisia, Turkey, United Kingdom, United States, Venezuela, Vietnam, Zambia and Zimbabwe is celebrated on June 21
- National Bomb Pop Day in the United States is celebrated on June 25
- Take Your Dog to Work Day in the United Kingdom and United States is celebrated on June 26
- Armed Forces Day in the United Kingdom is celebrated on June 27
- Inventors' and Rationalizers' Day in Russia is celebrated on June 27
- Veterans Day in the Netherlands is celebrated on June 27
- Father's Day in Haiti is celebrated on June 28
- Log Cabin Day in Michigan, United States is celebrated on June 28
- Mother's Day in Kenya is celebrated on June 28
## Selection of Historical Events
June 1, 1794: French Revolutionary Wars: The battle of the Glorious First of June is fought, the first naval engagement between Britain and France.
June 2, 1953: Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom.
June 3, 1965: The launch of _Gemini 4_, the first multi-day space mission by a NASA crew. June 4, 1783: The Montgolfier brothers publicly demonstrate their _montgolfière_ (hot air balloon).
June 5, 1837: Houston is incorporated by the Republic of Texas.
June 6, 1844: The Young Men's Christian Association is founded in London.
June 7, 1942: World War II: The Battle of Midway ends in American victory.
June 8, 1949: George Orwell's _Nineteen Eighty-Four_ is published.
June 9, 1944: World War II: Tulle massacre
June 10, 2003: The _Spirit_ rover is launched for NASA's Mars Exploration mission
June 11, 2010: 2010 FIFA World Cup (first African FIFA)
June 12, 2018: 2018 North Korea-United States Summit
June 13, 1983: _Pioneer 10_ becomes the first man-made object to leave the central Solar System
June 25, 1950: Korean War starts.
June 30, 1908: Tunguska event.
## Trivia
- June is one of two months that never begins on the same day of the week as any other months within any calendar year. (May is the other)
- The months of June and July both start with the "Ju" letter combination in the English language, and in some languages have only one letter's difference between their names.
- June's flower is the Rose.
- Its birthstone is the pearl.
- The Zodiac signs for June are Gemini (May 21 – June 20) and Cancer (June 21 – July 21).
- At the North Pole, the Sun does not set in June; at the South Pole, it does not rise. | high | false | false |
402 | July | **July** (Jul.) is the seventh [month](3641) of the [year](944) in the [Gregorian calendar](12159), coming between [June](401) and [August](2). It has 31 [day](3539)s. July was named after [Julius Caesar](5940). The halfway point of the year is either on [July 2](9915) or in the night of [July 1](8327)-[2](9915).
July always begins on the same day of the week as [April](1), and additionally, [January](400) in [leap year](434)s. July does not end on the same day of the week as any other month in [common year](3974)s, but ends on the same day of the week as [January](400) in [leap year](434)s.
## The Month
In each hemisphere, it is the [seasonal](6276) equivalent of [January](400) in the other hemisphere. In the North, it is [summer](3640) and in the South it is [winter](6643).
In the [Northern Hemisphere](6829), July is often the warmest month of the year, and major [sport](699)ing events and [music](472) festivals are held around this time. In the [Southern Hemisphere](12161), it is a winter month, with the [coldest](12570)-recorded temperature having been measured in [Antarctica](1976) in this month.
July begins on the same day of the week as [April](1) every year and on the same day of the week as [January](400) in [leap year](434)s. No other month in [common year](3974)s ends on the same day of the week as July, but July ends on the same day of the week as [January](400) in [leap year](434)s.
In common years, July starts on the same day of the week as [October](569) of the previous year, and in leap years, [May](469) of the previous year. In common years, July finishes on the same day of the week as [February](262) and October of the previous year, and in leap years, May of the previous year. In common years immediately after other common years, July both starts and finishes on the same day of the week as January of the previous year.
In years immediately before common years, July starts on the same day of the week as [September](684) and [December](185) of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, [June](401) of the following year. In years immediately before common years, July finishes on the same day of the week as [April](1) and December of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, September of the following year.
July's [flower](7947) is a variety of the [water lily](68075). Its birthstone is the [ruby](91170). The meaning for the birthstone ruby is contented mind. [Astrological](29179) signs for July are [Cancer](161892) ([June 21](8412) - [July 21](10042)) and [Leo](289701) ([July 22](10043) - [August 21](9960)).
In the old [Roman calendar](606601), July was called _Quintilis_, meaning _Fifth Month_, because, in the old calendar, the year began in [March](468). [Augustus](15583) later renamed it July in honor of [Julius Caesar](5940), whose birthday was in this month. [Augustus](15583) later also named the following month, [August](2), after himself.
In Catholic tradition, July is the Month of the Most Precious Blood of Jesus.
### Fixed Events
- [July 1](8327) – [Canada Day](222415), National Day of [Canada](219589)
- [July 1](8327) – Independence Day in [Somalia](12403)
- [July 1](8327) – Independence Day in [Burundi](9576)
- [July 1](8327) – Independence Day in [Rwanda](15939)
- [July 1](8327) – Keti Koti ([Suriname](16545))
- [July 1](8327) – Republic Day ([Ghana](12447))
- [July 1](8327) – Doctor's Day ([India](391))
- [July 2](9915) – [Canada Day](222415), observed on this date if [July 1](8327) is a [Sunday](3837)
- [July 2](9915) – [Bahia](22734) Independence Day ([Brazil](104))
- [July 3](9912) – Saint [Thomas the Apostle](27207) Day
- [July 3](9912) – Independence Day in [Belarus](8384)
- [July 3](9912) – Emancipation Day (US Virgin Islands)
- [July 4](7673) – Independence Day in the [United States](219587), commemorating the [Declaration of Independence](47482).
- [July 4](7673) – [Filipino](5103)-American Friendship Day
- [July 4](7673) – Liberation Day ([Rwanda](15939))
- [July 5](9095) – Independence Day in [Venezuela](6349)
- [July 5](9095) – Independence Day in [Algeria](5404)
- [July 5](9095) – Independence Day in [Cape Verde](19283)
- [July 6](9913) – Independence Day in [Malawi](18312)
- [July 6](9913) – Independence Day in the [Comoros](11458)
- [July 6](9913)-[14](10044) – San Fermin festival and [bull](6666) run in [Pamplona](397465), [Spain](219832).
- [July 7](9914) – Independence Day in the [Solomon Islands](15905)
- [July 7](9914) – Tanabata in [Japan](403), traditional 'Make a Wish' celebration
- [July 9](9916) – Independence Day ([Argentina](54))
- [July 9](9916) – Independence Day ([South Sudan](281134))
- [July 10](10041) – Independence Day in the Bahamas
- [July 10](10041) – Silence Day
- [July 10](10041) – Statehood Day ([Wyoming](11130))
- [July 11](10039) – Day of the [Flemish](618773) Community ([Belgium](103))
- [July 11](10039) – World [Population](4037) Day
- [July 11](10039) – National Day of Commemoration ([Ireland](361))
- [July 11](10039) to [13](7875) – Naadam ([Mongolia](17840))
- [July 12](10040) – Battle of the Boyne/[Orangeman's Day](443867) ([Northern Ireland](3050))
- [July 12](10040) – Independence Day (São Tomé and Príncipe)
- [July 12](10040) – Independence Day in [Kiribati](11465)
- [July 13](7875) – Statehood Day ([Montenegro](27716))
- [July 14](10044) – Bastille Day, national holiday of [France](291)
- [July 14](10044) – Republic Day ([Iraq](26175))
- [July 15](10045) – St. Swithun's Day in UK [weather](3399) lore
- [July 18](10047) – [Mandela Day](431405)
- [July 18](10047) – [Constitution](173) Day ([Uruguay](10982))
- [July 19](10048) – Sandinista Day ([Nicaragua](132619))
- [July 20](8393) – Independence Day ([Colombia](6351))
- [July 21](10042) – National Day of [Belgium](103)
- [July 21](10042) – Liberation Day ([Guam](15783))
- [July 22](10043) – Saint Mary Magdalene Day (Roman Catholicism)
- [July 23](10052) – [Birthday](22419) of Haile Selassie I of [Ethiopia](10484)
- [July 23](10052) – Revolution Day in [Egypt](248)
- [July 24](10037) – Pioneer Day ([Utah](10485))
- [July 24](10037) – Simon Bolivar Day ([Bolivia](9289), [Ecuador](11243), [Venezuela](6349))
- [July 25](9519) – [Constitution](173) Day (Occupation Day) in [Puerto Rico](12383)
- [July 25](9519) – Christian feast day of Saint James, includes regional holiday in [Galicia](62935)
- [July 26](9529) – Independence Day in [Liberia](12333)
- [July 26](9529) – Independence Day in the [Maldives](21696)
- [July 27](10049) – Victory Day ([North Korea](4074))
- [July 28](10050) – Independence Day in [Peru](2915)
- [July 28](10050) – Liberation Day ([San Marino](6240))
- [July 29](10051) – Feast Day of St. Olav, celebrated in the [Faroe Islands](19078)
- [July 29](10051) – International [Tiger](9796) Day
- [July 29](10051) – World [Hepatitis](41273) Day
- [July 30](8729) – Independence Day ([Vanuatu](10489))
- [July 30](8729) – Throne Day ([Morocco](15294))
- [July 31](9823) – Saint [Ignatius of Loyola](387715) Day
- [July 31](9823) – Ka Hae [Hawaii](332) Day
### Moveable events
- [Wimbledon tennis tournament](86903), held in late [June](401) and early July
- [FIFA World Cup](12984), often held in [June](401) and/or July
- Summer Olympics, often held in July and/or [August](2)
- [Tour de France](17052) cycling race
- In [Northern Hemisphere](6829) countries, many [Sport](699)s events and [Music](472) Festivals take place in July
- National [Ice Cream](12257) month in the [United States](219587)
- Presidents' Day ([Botswana](14712)) on the 3rd [Monday](4010) or [Tuesday](5780)
- So-called "Dog Days" in some [Northern Hemisphere](6829) countries, referring to the hot [summer](3640) weather
- [Marathon](6580) Races:
- [Gold Coast](279565), [Australia](27)
- [Recife](32222), [Brazil](104)
- [Rio de Janeiro](7805), [Brazil](104)
- [San Francisco](11481), [California](3009), [United States](219587)
## Selection of Historical Events
- [July 1](8327) – [1863](11698): [American Civil War](6418): The [Battle of Gettysburg](171864) is fought until [July 3](9912).
- [July 1](8327) – [1867](12522): The [Canadian](219589) Confederation is founded.
- [July 1](8327) – [1937](8746): The [999](25500) emergency dialing service begins in the UK.
- [July 1](8327) – [1997](3957): The [United Kingdom](856) hands control of [Hong Kong](4860) back to [China](120).
- [July 1](8327) – [1999](3955): The new [Scottish Parliament](161070) is opened in [Edinburgh](4864).
- [July 1](8327) – [2013](34906): [Croatia](11521) joins the [European Union](2132).
- [July 2](9915) – [1937](8746): [Amelia Earhart](49396) goes missing.
- [July 3](9912) – [1844](4655): The [Great Auk](32915) becomes extinct, after the last group were killed in [Iceland](2979).
- [July 4](7673) – [1776](13649): 13 colonies on the East coast of [North America](557) issue the [Declaration of Independence](47482), now celebrated on this date in the [United States](219587).
- [July 4](7673) – [1826](4591): US Presidents [John Adams](5423) and [Thomas Jefferson](7509) die on the same day as each other.
- [July 4](7673) – [2012](12277): Scientists at [CERN](127727) announce the discovery of a particle with properties consistent with the [Higgs boson](168396), after experiments at the [Large Hadron Collider](129317).
- [July 5](9095) – [1811](20346): [Venezuela](6349) declares independence.
- [July 5](9095) – [1962](8737): [Algeria](5404) becomes independent.
- [July 5](9095) – [1975](7794): [Cape Verde](19283) becomes independent.
- [July 6](9913) – [1964](9255): [Malawi](18312) becomes independent.
- [July 6](9913) – [1975](7794): The [Comoros](11458) become independent.
- [July 7](9914) – [1937](8746): The [Second Sino-Japanese War](60119) begins.
- [July 7](9914) – [1978](2998): The [Solomon Islands](15905) become independent.
- [July 7](9914) – [2005](3964): [Islam](219592)ic extremists detonate explosives at tube stations around [London](460) and on a bus, killing 52 people.
- [July 9](9916) – [1816](12317): The United Provinces of Rio de la Plata declare independence, as the predecessor state of present-day [Argentina](54).
- [July 9](9916) – [2011](31950): [South Sudan](281134) becomes independent from [Sudan](15047), after a referendum six months earlier.
- [July 10](10041) – [1913](7829): At nearly 57 degrees [Celsius](14808), the hottest-recorded [temperature](6329) on [Earth](219), is measured in [Death Valley](40697), [California](3009).
- [July 10](10041) – [1973](8445): The Bahamas become independent from the UK.
- [July 10](10041) – [1985](9265): French agents [torpedo](69223) the _Rainbow Warrior_ vessel docked in [Auckland](12442) harbour, [New Zealand](5072), where activists on board were protesting against French nuclear tests.
- [July 11](10039) – [1960](8426): The [novel](19401) [To Kill a Mockingbird](17310) by [Harper Lee](35434) is first published.
- [July 11](10039) – [1987](9118): [World population](349440) reaches 5 billion.
- [July 11](10039) – [1995](3959): The worst massacre in post-[World War II](219837) [Europe](216) occurs at [Srebrenica](883604), at the height of the Balkan War.
- [July 11](10039) – [2010](14361): [Spain](219832) wins the [2010 FIFA World Cup](134923) against the [Netherlands](3463) after a bad-tempered match.
- [July 12](10040) or [13](7875) – [100 BC](1006105): [Julius Caesar](5940) is born.
- [July 12](10040) – [1561](17578): [St. Basil's Cathedral](18276) in [Moscow](2965) is [consecrated](196038).
- [July 13](7875) – [1930](9853): The [1930 FIFA World Cup](82315) in [Uruguay](10982) begins.
- [July 14](10044) – [1789](5155): The Bastille prison is stormed in [Paris](4467), starting the [French Revolution](21250).
- [July 14](10044) – [2015](188993): [New Horizons](92466) flies by the [dwarf planet](34462) [Pluto](241636).
- [July 16](7795) – [1950](7184): [Uruguay](10982) wins its second [FIFA World Cup](12984), defeating host nation [Brazil](104) in the final.
- [July 16](7795) – [1981](5168): [Mahathir Mohamad](440535) becomes [Prime Minister of Malaysia](648358) and remains in power for 22 years.
- [July 17](8356) – [1918](9268): The family of [Tsar](19646) [Nicholas II](71328) is executed by the Bolsheviks in [Russia](2964).
- [July 17](8356) – [1936](8715): The [Spanish Civil War](24971) begins.
- [July 19](10048) – [1903](8065): [Maurice Garin](70318) wins the first [Tour de France](17052).
- [July 20](8393) – [1810](20436): Bogota, New Granada (now [Colombia](6351)) declares independence from [Spain](219832).
- [July 20](8393) – [1969](2984): [Neil Armstrong](7395) becomes the first person to walk on the [Moon](107799), followed shortly after by [Buzz Aldrin](4759).
- [July 21](10042) – [1983](7634): At -89.2 degrees [Celsius](14808), the coldest-ever recorded temperature is measured in [Antarctica](1976).
- [July 21](10042) – [2011](31950): End of the [Space Shuttle](37690) programme.
- [July 22](10043) – [2009](3992): [Solar eclipse](27722) over [Asia](1994) and the [Pacific Ocean](1975).
- [July 22](10043) – [2011](31950): The [2011 Norway attacks](302786) occur, as [Anders Behring Breivik](332602) kills a total of 77 people in two separate attacks.
- [July 23](10052) – [1952](6752): The [Egypt](248)ian [monarchy](4073) is removed from power in a coup.
- [July 24](10037) – [1911](8732): Explorer Hiram Bingham re-discovers the remains of [Machu Picchu](7108) in [Peru](2915).
- [July 25](9519) – [1978](2998): [Louise Brown](363169), the first 'test-tube baby', is born in the UK.
- [July 26](9529) – [1847](11422): [Liberia](12333) declares independence.
- [July 26](9529) – [1965](2983): The [Maldives](21696) declare independence.
- [July 27](10049) – [1940](9212): [Cartoon](18520) character [Bugs Bunny](71715) makes his first appearance.
- [July 27](10049) – [1953](7455): The [Korean War](7537) ends, though an official state of war still exists between [North Korea](4074) and [South Korea](5073).
- [July 28](10050) – [1821](11186): [Peru](2915) declares independence.
- [July 28](10050) – [1914](10113): [World War I](219834) - [Austria-Hungary](40951) declares war on [Serbia](5000).
- [July 28](10050) – [1976](9080): Tangshan, [China](120), is struck by a huge [earthquake](2081), killing many thousands of people.
- [July 29](10051) – [1900](10606): King [Umberto I of Italy](149303) is [assassinated](19142) by [Gaetano Bresci](95897).
- [July 30](8729) – [1930](9853): [Uruguay](10982) wins the first [FIFA World Cup](12984), defeating [Argentina](54) in the final in [Montevideo](22544).
- [July 30](8729) – [1980](8714): The [New Hebrides](869255), changing their name to [Vanuatu](10489), become independent.
- [July 30](8729) – [2012](12277): A massive power blackout affects around 620 million people in Northern [India](391).
- [July 31](9823) – [1790](12697): The first [US](720016) [patent](19139) is given to Samuel Hopkins for a potash process.
## Trivia
- July has the 200th day of the year. July 19 in a common year, July 18 in a leap year.
- July is often the [hot](5761)test month in the [Northern Hemisphere](6829)
- The hottest and coldest-ever recorded [temperature](6329)s on [Earth](219) were both recorded in July.
- The months of [June](401) and July both start with the "Ju" letter combination in the [English language](2843) and in some [language](419)s have only one letter's difference between their names.
- July and [August](2) are the only months named after people who really lived ([Julius Caesar](5940) and [Augustus](15583) respectively).
- [January](400) and July are the only 31-day [month](3641)s that are exactly six months apart. In the English language, they are also the only pair of months to both begin and end with the same letters (J and Y respectively)
- [July 1](8327) is the only day in July that is entirely within the first half of the [calendar](7517) year.
- [Canada](219589), the [United States](219587) and [France](291) are among the countries that celebrate their national holidays in July.
- The [astrological](29179) signs for July are [Cancer](161892) ([June 21](8412) to [July 21](10042)) and [Leo](289701) ([July 22](10043) to [August 21](9960)). | **July** (Jul.) is the seventh month of the year in the Gregorian calendar, coming between June and August. It has 31 days. July was named after Julius Caesar. The halfway point of the year is either on July 2 or in the night of July 1-2.
July always begins on the same day of the week as April, and additionally, January in leap years. July does not end on the same day of the week as any other month in common years, but ends on the same day of the week as January in leap years.
## The Month
In each hemisphere, it is the seasonal equivalent of January in the other hemisphere. In the North, it is summer and in the South it is winter.
In the Northern Hemisphere, July is often the warmest month of the year, and major sporting events and music festivals are held around this time. In the Southern Hemisphere, it is a winter month, with the coldest-recorded temperature having been measured in Antarctica in this month.
July begins on the same day of the week as April every year and on the same day of the week as January in leap years. No other month in common years ends on the same day of the week as July, but July ends on the same day of the week as January in leap years.
In common years, July starts on the same day of the week as October of the previous year, and in leap years, May of the previous year. In common years, July finishes on the same day of the week as February and October of the previous year, and in leap years, May of the previous year. In common years immediately after other common years, July both starts and finishes on the same day of the week as January of the previous year.
In years immediately before common years, July starts on the same day of the week as September and December of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, June of the following year. In years immediately before common years, July finishes on the same day of the week as April and December of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, September of the following year.
July's flower is a variety of the water lily. Its birthstone is the ruby. The meaning for the birthstone ruby is contented mind. Astrological signs for July are Cancer (June 21 - July 21) and Leo (July 22 - August 21).
In the old Roman calendar, July was called _Quintilis_, meaning _Fifth Month_, because, in the old calendar, the year began in March. Augustus later renamed it July in honor of Julius Caesar, whose birthday was in this month. Augustus later also named the following month, August, after himself.
In Catholic tradition, July is the Month of the Most Precious Blood of Jesus.
### Fixed Events
- July 1 – Canada Day, National Day of Canada
- July 1 – Independence Day in Somalia
- July 1 – Independence Day in Burundi
- July 1 – Independence Day in Rwanda
- July 1 – Keti Koti (Suriname)
- July 1 – Republic Day (Ghana)
- July 1 – Doctor's Day (India)
- July 2 – Canada Day, observed on this date if July 1 is a Sunday
- July 2 – Bahia Independence Day (Brazil)
- July 3 – Saint Thomas the Apostle Day
- July 3 – Independence Day in Belarus
- July 3 – Emancipation Day (US Virgin Islands)
- July 4 – Independence Day in the United States, commemorating the Declaration of Independence.
- July 4 – Filipino-American Friendship Day
- July 4 – Liberation Day (Rwanda)
- July 5 – Independence Day in Venezuela
- July 5 – Independence Day in Algeria
- July 5 – Independence Day in Cape Verde
- July 6 – Independence Day in Malawi
- July 6 – Independence Day in the Comoros
- July 6-14 – San Fermin festival and bull run in Pamplona, Spain.
- July 7 – Independence Day in the Solomon Islands
- July 7 – Tanabata in Japan, traditional 'Make a Wish' celebration
- July 9 – Independence Day (Argentina)
- July 9 – Independence Day (South Sudan)
- July 10 – Independence Day in the Bahamas
- July 10 – Silence Day
- July 10 – Statehood Day (Wyoming)
- July 11 – Day of the Flemish Community (Belgium)
- July 11 – World Population Day
- July 11 – National Day of Commemoration (Ireland)
- July 11 to 13 – Naadam (Mongolia)
- July 12 – Battle of the Boyne/Orangeman's Day (Northern Ireland)
- July 12 – Independence Day (São Tomé and Príncipe)
- July 12 – Independence Day in Kiribati
- July 13 – Statehood Day (Montenegro)
- July 14 – Bastille Day, national holiday of France
- July 14 – Republic Day (Iraq)
- July 15 – St. Swithun's Day in UK weather lore
- July 18 – Mandela Day
- July 18 – Constitution Day (Uruguay)
- July 19 – Sandinista Day (Nicaragua)
- July 20 – Independence Day (Colombia)
- July 21 – National Day of Belgium
- July 21 – Liberation Day (Guam)
- July 22 – Saint Mary Magdalene Day (Roman Catholicism)
- July 23 – Birthday of Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia
- July 23 – Revolution Day in Egypt
- July 24 – Pioneer Day (Utah)
- July 24 – Simon Bolivar Day (Bolivia, Ecuador, Venezuela)
- July 25 – Constitution Day (Occupation Day) in Puerto Rico
- July 25 – Christian feast day of Saint James, includes regional holiday in Galicia
- July 26 – Independence Day in Liberia
- July 26 – Independence Day in the Maldives
- July 27 – Victory Day (North Korea)
- July 28 – Independence Day in Peru
- July 28 – Liberation Day (San Marino)
- July 29 – Feast Day of St. Olav, celebrated in the Faroe Islands
- July 29 – International Tiger Day
- July 29 – World Hepatitis Day
- July 30 – Independence Day (Vanuatu)
- July 30 – Throne Day (Morocco)
- July 31 – Saint Ignatius of Loyola Day
- July 31 – Ka Hae Hawaii Day
### Moveable events
- Wimbledon tennis tournament, held in late June and early July
- FIFA World Cup, often held in June and/or July
- Summer Olympics, often held in July and/or August
- Tour de France cycling race
- In Northern Hemisphere countries, many Sports events and Music Festivals take place in July
- National Ice Cream month in the United States
- Presidents' Day (Botswana) on the 3rd Monday or Tuesday
- So-called "Dog Days" in some Northern Hemisphere countries, referring to the hot summer weather
- Marathon Races:
- Gold Coast, Australia
- Recife, Brazil
- Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- San Francisco, California, United States
## Selection of Historical Events
- July 1 – 1863: American Civil War: The Battle of Gettysburg is fought until July 3.
- July 1 – 1867: The Canadian Confederation is founded.
- July 1 – 1937: The 999 emergency dialing service begins in the UK.
- July 1 – 1997: The United Kingdom hands control of Hong Kong back to China.
- July 1 – 1999: The new Scottish Parliament is opened in Edinburgh.
- July 1 – 2013: Croatia joins the European Union.
- July 2 – 1937: Amelia Earhart goes missing.
- July 3 – 1844: The Great Auk becomes extinct, after the last group were killed in Iceland.
- July 4 – 1776: 13 colonies on the East coast of North America issue the Declaration of Independence, now celebrated on this date in the United States.
- July 4 – 1826: US Presidents John Adams and Thomas Jefferson die on the same day as each other.
- July 4 – 2012: Scientists at CERN announce the discovery of a particle with properties consistent with the Higgs boson, after experiments at the Large Hadron Collider.
- July 5 – 1811: Venezuela declares independence.
- July 5 – 1962: Algeria becomes independent.
- July 5 – 1975: Cape Verde becomes independent.
- July 6 – 1964: Malawi becomes independent.
- July 6 – 1975: The Comoros become independent.
- July 7 – 1937: The Second Sino-Japanese War begins.
- July 7 – 1978: The Solomon Islands become independent.
- July 7 – 2005: Islamic extremists detonate explosives at tube stations around London and on a bus, killing 52 people.
- July 9 – 1816: The United Provinces of Rio de la Plata declare independence, as the predecessor state of present-day Argentina.
- July 9 – 2011: South Sudan becomes independent from Sudan, after a referendum six months earlier.
- July 10 – 1913: At nearly 57 degrees Celsius, the hottest-recorded temperature on Earth, is measured in Death Valley, California.
- July 10 – 1973: The Bahamas become independent from the UK.
- July 10 – 1985: French agents torpedo the _Rainbow Warrior_ vessel docked in Auckland harbour, New Zealand, where activists on board were protesting against French nuclear tests.
- July 11 – 1960: The novel To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee is first published.
- July 11 – 1987: World population reaches 5 billion.
- July 11 – 1995: The worst massacre in post-World War II Europe occurs at Srebrenica, at the height of the Balkan War.
- July 11 – 2010: Spain wins the 2010 FIFA World Cup against the Netherlands after a bad-tempered match.
- July 12 or 13 – 100 BC: Julius Caesar is born.
- July 12 – 1561: St. Basil's Cathedral in Moscow is consecrated.
- July 13 – 1930: The 1930 FIFA World Cup in Uruguay begins.
- July 14 – 1789: The Bastille prison is stormed in Paris, starting the French Revolution.
- July 14 – 2015: New Horizons flies by the dwarf planet Pluto.
- July 16 – 1950: Uruguay wins its second FIFA World Cup, defeating host nation Brazil in the final.
- July 16 – 1981: Mahathir Mohamad becomes Prime Minister of Malaysia and remains in power for 22 years.
- July 17 – 1918: The family of Tsar Nicholas II is executed by the Bolsheviks in Russia.
- July 17 – 1936: The Spanish Civil War begins.
- July 19 – 1903: Maurice Garin wins the first Tour de France.
- July 20 – 1810: Bogota, New Granada (now Colombia) declares independence from Spain.
- July 20 – 1969: Neil Armstrong becomes the first person to walk on the Moon, followed shortly after by Buzz Aldrin.
- July 21 – 1983: At -89.2 degrees Celsius, the coldest-ever recorded temperature is measured in Antarctica.
- July 21 – 2011: End of the Space Shuttle programme.
- July 22 – 2009: Solar eclipse over Asia and the Pacific Ocean.
- July 22 – 2011: The 2011 Norway attacks occur, as Anders Behring Breivik kills a total of 77 people in two separate attacks.
- July 23 – 1952: The Egyptian monarchy is removed from power in a coup.
- July 24 – 1911: Explorer Hiram Bingham re-discovers the remains of Machu Picchu in Peru.
- July 25 – 1978: Louise Brown, the first 'test-tube baby', is born in the UK.
- July 26 – 1847: Liberia declares independence.
- July 26 – 1965: The Maldives declare independence.
- July 27 – 1940: Cartoon character Bugs Bunny makes his first appearance.
- July 27 – 1953: The Korean War ends, though an official state of war still exists between North Korea and South Korea.
- July 28 – 1821: Peru declares independence.
- July 28 – 1914: World War I - Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia.
- July 28 – 1976: Tangshan, China, is struck by a huge earthquake, killing many thousands of people.
- July 29 – 1900: King Umberto I of Italy is assassinated by Gaetano Bresci.
- July 30 – 1930: Uruguay wins the first FIFA World Cup, defeating Argentina in the final in Montevideo.
- July 30 – 1980: The New Hebrides, changing their name to Vanuatu, become independent.
- July 30 – 2012: A massive power blackout affects around 620 million people in Northern India.
- July 31 – 1790: The first US patent is given to Samuel Hopkins for a potash process.
## Trivia
- July has the 200th day of the year. July 19 in a common year, July 18 in a leap year.
- July is often the hottest month in the Northern Hemisphere
- The hottest and coldest-ever recorded temperatures on Earth were both recorded in July.
- The months of June and July both start with the "Ju" letter combination in the English language and in some languages have only one letter's difference between their names.
- July and August are the only months named after people who really lived (Julius Caesar and Augustus respectively).
- January and July are the only 31-day months that are exactly six months apart. In the English language, they are also the only pair of months to both begin and end with the same letters (J and Y respectively)
- July 1 is the only day in July that is entirely within the first half of the calendar year.
- Canada, the United States and France are among the countries that celebrate their national holidays in July.
- The astrological signs for July are Cancer (June 21 to July 21) and Leo (July 22 to August 21). | high | false | false |
403 | Japan | **Japan** (; [Romanized](700691) as _Nihon_ or _Nippon_) is a [country](121) in [East Asia](32118). It is a group of [island](367)s close to the east coast of [Korea](2159), [China](120) and [Russia](2964). The [Pacific Ocean](1975) is to the east of Japan and the [Sea of Japan](47164) is to the west. Most people in Japan live on one of the four islands. The biggest of these islands, Honshu, has the most people. Honshu is the 7th largest island in the [world](6369). [Tokyo](4329) is the [capital](1968) of Japan and its biggest city.
The [Japanese people](442745) call their country "Nihon" or "Nippon", which means "the origin of the [Sun](44408)" in Japanese. Japan is a [monarchy](4073) whose [head of state](4866) is called the [Emperor](42038). Japan is the oldest monarchy in the world, lasting more than 2,000 years.
## History
The first people in Japan were the [Ainu people](9084) and other [Jōmon people](111195). They were closely related to [Europe](216)ans or [Mongols](52506). They were later conquered and replaced by the [Yayoi people](326962) (early Japanese and Ryukyuans). The Yayoi were an ancient ethnic group that migrated to the Japanese archipelago mainly from [southeastern China](120) during the Yayoi period (300 CE–300 AD). Modern [Japanese people](442745) have primarily Yayoi ancestry at an average of 97%. The indigenous [Ryukyuan](732763) and [Ainu](9084) peoples have more Jōmon ancestry on the other hand.
The earliest records on Japan are from [Chinese](120) documents. One of those records said there were many small countries (in Japan) which had wars between them and later a country, ruled by a queen, became the strongest, unified others, and brought peace.
The Japanese began to write their own history after the [5th](15639) and [6th century](15638), when people from [Korea](2159) and China taught Japan about the Chinese writing system. Japan's neighbors also taught them [Buddhism](3496). The Japanese changed Buddhism in many ways. For example, Japanese Buddhists used ideas such as [Zen](23458) more than other Buddhists.
Japan had some contact with the Europeans in the [16th century](14230). The [Portuguese](3466) were the first Europeans to visit Japan. Later, the [Spanish](219832) and [Dutch](3487) came to Japan to trade. Also, they brought [Christianity](219595). Japan's leaders welcomed them at first, but because Europeans had conquered many places in the world, the Japanese were scared that they would conquer Japan too. That made the Japanese not let the Europeans come into Japan anymore, except in a small area in [Nagasaki](19568). Many Christians were killed. Only the Chinese, Korean, and Dutch people were allowed to visit Japan, in the end, and they were under careful control of the Japanese government. Japan was opened for visitors again in [1854](10605) by Commodore [Matthew Perry](366451), when the [Americans](219587) wanted to use Japanese ports for American [whale](7597) boats. Perry brought steamships with guns, which scared the Japanese into making an agreement with him.
This new contact with Europeans and Americans changed the Japanese culture. The [Meiji Restoration](32471) of [1868](16324) stopped some old ways and added many new ones. The [Empire of Japan](69465) was created, and it became a very powerful nation and tried to invade the countries next to it.
It invaded and [annexed](23413) Ryukyu Kingdom, [Taiwan](833), and Korea. It had wars with China and Russia: the [First Sino-Japanese War](68913), the [Boxer Rebellion](301926), the [Russo-Japanese War](129771), [World War I](219834) and the [Siberian intervention](273186).
In 1918, World War I allowed Japan, which joined the side of the victorious [Allies](115144), to capture [German possessions](41741) in the Pacific and in China.
The Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945) grew to become a part of [World War II](219837) when Japan became allies with [Nazi Germany](15678) and [Fascist Italy](303789).
In 1941, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, in [Hawaii](332) and destroyed or damaged many ships and airplanes of the United States. That started the Americans' involvement in [World War II](219837). American and Japanese forces fought each other in the Pacific. The Americans captured most of the islands in the Pacific, started dropping bombs on Japanese cities, and prepared to invade Japan.
To make Japan surrender, the United States dropped two atomic bombs on the cities of [Hiroshima](3537) and [Nagasaki](19568), killing 150,000 Japanese citizens. Soon, the [Soviet Union](3600) began to fight against Japan, and the Japanese army in [Manchuria](23414) lost. Japan surrendered all places that it had taken from other countries. It also accepted the [Potsdam](64477) Proclamation. The United States occupied Japan from September 1945 to April 1952 and forced it to write a new [constitution](173) in which it promised to never go to war again.
Japan was granted membership in the [United Nations](4549) in 1956. A [period of record growth](1014681) propelled Japan to become the second-largest economy in the world. On 11 March 2011, Japan suffered one of the [largest earthquakes in its recorded history](286301), triggering the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster. On 1 May 2019, after the historic [abdication of Emperor Akihito](17478), his son [Naruhito](444192) became emperor and started the Reiwa era. On 8 July 2022, former Prime Minister [Shinzo Abe](535849) was [assassinated](941548) while he was giving a campaign speech in [Nara](359946).
On 21 October 2025, [Sanae Takaichi](868369) was confirmed as the country's first female prime minister.
## Geography
Japan is a group of islands in the Western Pacific, off the coast of China. The four biggest islands are Honshu, Hokkaido, [Shikoku](265738), and Kyushu, and there are about 6,000 smaller islands there. Japan is separated from the Asian continent by the [Sea of Japan](47164) and the East China Sea. Honshu, which means 'Mainland' in the [Japanese language](3937), is the biggest island. Hokkaido is the island north of Honshu. Kyushu is the island west of Honshu. Shikoku is the island to the south-west of Honshu.
In the middle of Japan there are mountains. They cover the middle of the islands and leave a very narrow strip of flat land on most coasts. Many of the mountains are extinct [volcano](4483)es, but some are still active. The highest of these mountains is the beautiful, volcano-shaped Mt Fuji (3,776 metres or 12,389 feet high). Japan has many earthquakes, in fact there are about 1500 of these every year. The biggest earthquake recorded in Japan was in 2011 - called '2011 Tohoku Earthquake'. It caused great damage to several power plants forcing Japan to shut down all its nuclear plants. There was nuclear core meltdown which caused a serious health risk to nearby villages and cities.
90% of the people living in Japan live in just 10% of the [land](20961), near the coast. The other 10% of the people in Japan live away from the coast.
Over 10 cities have more than a million people in them. The biggest city in Japan is [Tokyo](4329), which is the capital.
## Science and technology
Japan has made many contributions to [science](700) and [technology](15232).
The [QR code](446091), the camera phone, the [CD player](12679), and the [VHS](240257) were invented in Japan.
Japan is a leader in the [robotics](566464) industry: It is the world's largest maker of industrial robots. It has the 2nd most industrial robots behind China.
## Economy
Japan has one of the strongest [economies](8377) of any country. Its nominal [gross domestic product](3759) (GDP) is the [3rd highest in the world](340757). It has a very low [unemployment rate](64931) and was the 4th-largest exporter and 4th-largest importer in 2021.
Japan is known for its [automotive industry](377620): It is home to [Toyota](12849), the world's largest car company. [Honda](31574), [Nissan](391758), [Suzuki](96547) and [Mazda](133866) are other popular car makers from Japan.
[Tokyo](393582) is the most populous city in the world. It also has one of the largest economies of any city. It is an important financial center: It has the [Tokyo Stock Exchange](130038), one of the largest stock exchanges in Asia.
## Society and culture
Many things in Japanese culture originated in [China](120), like [Go](15600) and [bonsai](6172).
Cherry blossom also known as Japanese cherry and Sakura is thought to be the national flower of Japan.
Japan's traditional food is [seafood](12378), rice, [miso soup](21787), and vegetables. Noodles and [tofu](21794) are also common. [Sushi](12725), a Japanese food made of cooked rice with [vinegar](21127) with other ingredients such as raw fish, and sometimes fried shrimp, is popular around the world.
The religion in Japan is mostly [Shinto](4480) and Buddhist. Due to the tolerant nature of the two main Japanese religions, and the resulting intermixing of the two, many Japanese identify as both Shinto and Buddhist at the same time. There are small numbers of [Christian](170)s and Hindus, and a few [Jew](39429)s.
When it comes to [popular culture](33767), Japan is famous for making [video game](4017)s. Many of the biggest companies that make games, like [Nintendo](7604), [Namco](118424), and [Sega](12288), are Japanese. Other well-known parts of Japanese [arts](48776) are its [comics](6482), called [manga](4984), and its digital [animation](13214), known as [anime](15044). Many people get to know Japanese or how life in Japan is like by reading manga or watching anime on [television](1999).
The [Ryukyuans](732763) and the [Ainu](9084) both have their own separate cultures, languages and religion.
## Cities, regions and territories
The biggest cities in Japan are:
- [Tokyo](4329) (capital city）
- [Yokohama](6774)
- [Nagoya](118427)
- [Osaka](6684)
- [Kyoto](4470)
- Kobe
- [Hiroshima](3537)
- [Fukuoka](45821)
- Kitakyushu
- [Sendai](286449)
- [Sapporo](5949)
- [Nagasaki](19568)
In Japan there are seven traditional regions:
- Hokkaido
- Tohoku
- Kanto
- Chubu
- Kansai
- Chugoku
- [Shikoku](265738)
- Kyushu
### Territorial problem
Since Japan is an island nation, Japan has several problems over territory because maritime boundaries can be hard to protect. These days, Japan is competing for at least 4 different territories. It cannot agree with some neighboring countries on whether the land belongs to Japan or the other country.
- [Senkaku Islands](23417) problem (with [China](120) and [Taiwan](833))
- [Liancourt Rocks](28525) island problem (with [South Korea](5073))
- Southern Chishima Islands problem (with [Russia](2964))
- [Sea of Japan](47164) problem (with South Korea and [North Korea](4074))
## Public transportation
There are several important international airports in Japan. Narita is the major international airport in the Tokyo area. Kansai International Airport serves as the main airport for [Osaka](6684), Kobe, and [Kyoto](4470). Chūbu Centrair International Airport near [Nagoya](118427) is the newest of the three. [Haneda Airport](323473) is close to central Tokyo and is the largest domestic airport in the country.
The [Shinkansen](6706) is one of the fastest trains in the world and connects cities in Honshu and Kyushu. Networks of public and private railways are over almost all the country. People mostly travel between cities in buses.
## Subdivisions
Modern Japan is divided into 47 prefectures. Before the [Meiji period](68492) (1868-1912), the nation was divided into provinces which were consolidated in the prefectural system.
|style="padding-right:1em; vertical-align:top;"|--- 1. [Hokkaidō](66015)|style="padding-right:1em; vertical-align:top;"|--- 2. [Aomori](270868) 3. [Iwate](285384) 4. [Miyagi](301846) 5. [Akita](267356) 6. [Yamagata](332033) 7. [Fukushima](69523)|style="padding-right:1em; vertical-align:top;"|--- 8. [Ibaraki](270869) 9. [Tochigi](205244) 10. [Gunma](269583) 11. [Saitama](243374) 12. [Chiba](267459) 13. [Tokyo](393582) 14. [Kanagawa](166086)|style="padding-right:1em; vertical-align:top;"|--- 15. [Niigata](268844) 16. [Toyama](62319) 17. [Ishikawa](326444) 18. [Fukui](331844) 19. [Yamanashi](276870) 20. [Nagano](331845) 21. [Gifu](280992) 22. [Shizuoka](270866) 23. [Aichi](316655)|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|style="padding-right:1em; vertical-align:top;"|--- 24. [Mie](98569) 25. [Shiga](331957) 26. [Kyoto](332116) 27. [Osaka](269586) 28. [Hyōgo](106000) 29. [Nara](331848) 30. [Wakayama](106007)|style="padding-right:1em; vertical-align:top;"|--- 31. [Tottori](332026) 32. [Shimane](267680) 33. [Okayama](315903) 34. [Hiroshima](285380) 35. [Yamaguchi](328077)|style="padding-right:1em; vertical-align:top;"|--- 36. [Tokushima](315819) 37. [Kagawa](270864) 38. [Ehime](315814) 39. [Kōchi](265881)|style="padding-right:1em; vertical-align:top;"|--- 40. [Fukuoka](76206) 41. [Saga](128139) 42. [Nagasaki](123529) 43. [Kumamoto](271031) 44. [Ōita](315641) 45. [Miyazaki](278971) 46. [Kagoshima](269584) 47. [Okinawa](269582)|
## Sports
Japan has many traditional sports such as [sumo](9404), [judo](78553), [karate](37065), [kyudo](372893), [aikido](115420), [iaido](790726) and [kendo](53915). Also, there are sports which were imported from the West such as [baseball](6402), soccer, [rugby](40078), [golf](3950) and [skiing](57608). Baseball is the most popular sport.
Japan has taken part in the [Olympic Games](5290) since 1912. It hosted the Olympic Games in 1964, 1972, 1998 and 2020. From 1912 until now, Japanese sportspeople have won 398 medals in total.
Professional sports are also popular and many sports such as baseball (see [Pacific League](353815) and [Central League](936357)), soccer (see List of Japanese football teams), sumo, [American football](8793), [basketball](7500) and [volleyball](22096), are played professionally.
## Related pages
- [Japanese food](243421)
- [Japanese language](3937)
- [Japanese calendar](328352)
## Other websites
- Government
- [Kantei.go.jp](http://www.kantei.go.jp/foreign/index-e.html), official [prime ministerial](62150) and cabinet site
- [Ministry of Foreign Affairs](http://www.mofa.go.jp/), papers on Japan's foreign policy, education programs, culture and life
- [National Diet Library](http://www.ndl.go.jp/en/index.html)
- [Sntv24samachar](https://sntv24samachar.com)
- [Shugi-in.go.jp](http://www.shugiin.go.jp/index.nsf/html/index_e.htm), official site of the House of Representatives
- [Chief of State and Cabinet Members](https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/JA.html). .
## Infobox (country)
- **conventional long name**: Japan
- **common name**: Japan
- **linking name**: Japan
- **image flag**: Flag of Japan.svg
- **alt flag**: Centered deep red circle on a white rectangle
- **image coat**: Imperial Seal of Japan.svg
- **alt coat**: Golden circle subdivided by golden wedges with rounded outer edges and thin black outlines
- **symbol type**: Imperial crest
- **other symbol**:
- **other symbol type**: Government crest of Japan
State Seal of Japan
- **national anthem**:
- **image map**: Japan (orthographic projection).svg
- **map width**: 220px
- **alt map**: Projection of Asia with Japan's Area coloured green
- **map caption**: Area controlled by Japan shown in green—claimed, but uncontrolled shown in light green
- **capital**: Tokyo
- **largest city**: capital
- **languages type**: National language
- **languages**: Japanese language, Japanese
- **ethnic groups year**: 2011
- **demonym**: Japanese people, Japanese
- **government type**: Unitary state, Unitary Parliamentary system, parliamentary constitutional monarchy
- **leader title1**: Emperor of Japan, Emperor
- **leader name1**: Naruhito
- **leader title2**: Prime Minister of Japan, Prime Minister
- **leader name2**: Sanae Takaichi
- **leader title3**: Deputy Prime Minister of Japan, Deputy Prime Minister
- **leader name3**: Vacant
- **legislature**: National Diet
- **upper house**: House of Councillors (Japan), House of Councillors
- **lower house**: House of Representatives (Japan), House of Representatives
- **sovereignty type**: History of Japan, Formation
- **established event1**: National Foundation Day
- **established date1**: February 11, 660 BC
- **established event2**: Meiji Constitution
- **established date2**: November 29, 1890
- **established date3**: May 3, 1947
- **area km2**: 377,972
- **area rank**: 61st
- **percent water**: 1.40 (as of 2015)
- **population census**: 126,572,604
- **population census year**: 2017
- **population census rank**: 10th
- **population density km2**: 336
- **population density rank**: 36th
- **gdp ppp**: $5.420 trillion
- **gdp ppp year**: 2025
- **gdp ppp rank**: 6th
- **gdp ppp per capita**: $42,960
- **gdp ppp per capita rank**: 27th
- **gdp nominal**: $4.841 trillion
- **gdp nominal year**: 2023
- **gdp nominal rank**: 4th
- **gdp nominal per capita**: $38,981
- **gdp nominal per capita rank**: 20th
- **gini**: 37.6
- **gini year**: 2008
- **gini rank**: 76th
- **hdi**: 0.903
- **hdi year**: 2015
- **hdi change**: increase
- **hdi rank**: 17th
- **currency**: Japanese yen, Yen (¥)
- **currency code**: JPY
- **time zone**: Japan Standard Time, JST
- **utc offset**: +9
- **utc offset dst**: +9
- **time zone dst**: not observed
- **drives on**: left
- **calling code**: Telephone numbers in Japan, +81
- **cctld**: .jp
- **official website**: [http://www.japan.go.jp/index.html www.japan.go.jp]
- **population density sq mi**: 882.7
- **iso3166code**: JP
## Infobox (chinese)
- **title**: Japan
- **kanji**: 日本国
- **kyujitai**: 日本國
- **katakana**: ニッポンコク
ニホンコク
- **hiragana**: にっぽんこく
にほんこく
- **l**: State of Japan
- **romaji**: Nippon-koku
Nihon-koku
- **revhep**: Nippon-koku
Nihon-koku
- **altname**: State of Japan | **Japan** (; Romanized as _Nihon_ or _Nippon_) is a country in East Asia. It is a group of islands close to the east coast of Korea, China and Russia. The Pacific Ocean is to the east of Japan and the Sea of Japan is to the west. Most people in Japan live on one of the four islands. The biggest of these islands, Honshu, has the most people. Honshu is the 7th largest island in the world. Tokyo is the capital of Japan and its biggest city.
The Japanese people call their country "Nihon" or "Nippon", which means "the origin of the Sun" in Japanese. Japan is a monarchy whose head of state is called the Emperor. Japan is the oldest monarchy in the world, lasting more than 2,000 years.
## History
The first people in Japan were the Ainu people and other Jōmon people. They were closely related to Europeans or Mongols. They were later conquered and replaced by the Yayoi people (early Japanese and Ryukyuans). The Yayoi were an ancient ethnic group that migrated to the Japanese archipelago mainly from southeastern China during the Yayoi period (300 CE–300 AD). Modern Japanese people have primarily Yayoi ancestry at an average of 97%. The indigenous Ryukyuan and Ainu peoples have more Jōmon ancestry on the other hand.
The earliest records on Japan are from Chinese documents. One of those records said there were many small countries (in Japan) which had wars between them and later a country, ruled by a queen, became the strongest, unified others, and brought peace.
The Japanese began to write their own history after the 5th and 6th century, when people from Korea and China taught Japan about the Chinese writing system. Japan's neighbors also taught them Buddhism. The Japanese changed Buddhism in many ways. For example, Japanese Buddhists used ideas such as Zen more than other Buddhists.
Japan had some contact with the Europeans in the 16th century. The Portuguese were the first Europeans to visit Japan. Later, the Spanish and Dutch came to Japan to trade. Also, they brought Christianity. Japan's leaders welcomed them at first, but because Europeans had conquered many places in the world, the Japanese were scared that they would conquer Japan too. That made the Japanese not let the Europeans come into Japan anymore, except in a small area in Nagasaki. Many Christians were killed. Only the Chinese, Korean, and Dutch people were allowed to visit Japan, in the end, and they were under careful control of the Japanese government. Japan was opened for visitors again in 1854 by Commodore Matthew Perry, when the Americans wanted to use Japanese ports for American whale boats. Perry brought steamships with guns, which scared the Japanese into making an agreement with him.
This new contact with Europeans and Americans changed the Japanese culture. The Meiji Restoration of 1868 stopped some old ways and added many new ones. The Empire of Japan was created, and it became a very powerful nation and tried to invade the countries next to it.
It invaded and annexed Ryukyu Kingdom, Taiwan, and Korea. It had wars with China and Russia: the First Sino-Japanese War, the Boxer Rebellion, the Russo-Japanese War, World War I and the Siberian intervention.
In 1918, World War I allowed Japan, which joined the side of the victorious Allies, to capture German possessions in the Pacific and in China.
The Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945) grew to become a part of World War II when Japan became allies with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy.
In 1941, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, in Hawaii and destroyed or damaged many ships and airplanes of the United States. That started the Americans' involvement in World War II. American and Japanese forces fought each other in the Pacific. The Americans captured most of the islands in the Pacific, started dropping bombs on Japanese cities, and prepared to invade Japan.
To make Japan surrender, the United States dropped two atomic bombs on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, killing 150,000 Japanese citizens. Soon, the Soviet Union began to fight against Japan, and the Japanese army in Manchuria lost. Japan surrendered all places that it had taken from other countries. It also accepted the Potsdam Proclamation. The United States occupied Japan from September 1945 to April 1952 and forced it to write a new constitution in which it promised to never go to war again.
Japan was granted membership in the United Nations in 1956. A period of record growth propelled Japan to become the second-largest economy in the world. On 11 March 2011, Japan suffered one of the largest earthquakes in its recorded history, triggering the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster. On 1 May 2019, after the historic abdication of Emperor Akihito, his son Naruhito became emperor and started the Reiwa era. On 8 July 2022, former Prime Minister Shinzo Abe was assassinated while he was giving a campaign speech in Nara.
On 21 October 2025, Sanae Takaichi was confirmed as the country's first female prime minister.
## Geography
Japan is a group of islands in the Western Pacific, off the coast of China. The four biggest islands are Honshu, Hokkaido, Shikoku, and Kyushu, and there are about 6,000 smaller islands there. Japan is separated from the Asian continent by the Sea of Japan and the East China Sea. Honshu, which means 'Mainland' in the Japanese language, is the biggest island. Hokkaido is the island north of Honshu. Kyushu is the island west of Honshu. Shikoku is the island to the south-west of Honshu.
In the middle of Japan there are mountains. They cover the middle of the islands and leave a very narrow strip of flat land on most coasts. Many of the mountains are extinct volcanoes, but some are still active. The highest of these mountains is the beautiful, volcano-shaped Mt Fuji (3,776 metres or 12,389 feet high). Japan has many earthquakes, in fact there are about 1500 of these every year. The biggest earthquake recorded in Japan was in 2011 - called '2011 Tohoku Earthquake'. It caused great damage to several power plants forcing Japan to shut down all its nuclear plants. There was nuclear core meltdown which caused a serious health risk to nearby villages and cities.
90% of the people living in Japan live in just 10% of the land, near the coast. The other 10% of the people in Japan live away from the coast.
Over 10 cities have more than a million people in them. The biggest city in Japan is Tokyo, which is the capital.
## Science and technology
Japan has made many contributions to science and technology.
The QR code, the camera phone, the CD player, and the VHS were invented in Japan.
Japan is a leader in the robotics industry: It is the world's largest maker of industrial robots. It has the 2nd most industrial robots behind China.
## Economy
Japan has one of the strongest economies of any country. Its nominal gross domestic product (GDP) is the 3rd highest in the world. It has a very low unemployment rate and was the 4th-largest exporter and 4th-largest importer in 2021.
Japan is known for its automotive industry: It is home to Toyota, the world's largest car company. Honda, Nissan, Suzuki and Mazda are other popular car makers from Japan.
Tokyo is the most populous city in the world. It also has one of the largest economies of any city. It is an important financial center: It has the Tokyo Stock Exchange, one of the largest stock exchanges in Asia.
## Society and culture
Many things in Japanese culture originated in China, like Go and bonsai.
Cherry blossom also known as Japanese cherry and Sakura is thought to be the national flower of Japan.
Japan's traditional food is seafood, rice, miso soup, and vegetables. Noodles and tofu are also common. Sushi, a Japanese food made of cooked rice with vinegar with other ingredients such as raw fish, and sometimes fried shrimp, is popular around the world.
The religion in Japan is mostly Shinto and Buddhist. Due to the tolerant nature of the two main Japanese religions, and the resulting intermixing of the two, many Japanese identify as both Shinto and Buddhist at the same time. There are small numbers of Christians and Hindus, and a few Jews.
When it comes to popular culture, Japan is famous for making video games. Many of the biggest companies that make games, like Nintendo, Namco, and Sega, are Japanese. Other well-known parts of Japanese arts are its comics, called manga, and its digital animation, known as anime. Many people get to know Japanese or how life in Japan is like by reading manga or watching anime on television.
The Ryukyuans and the Ainu both have their own separate cultures, languages and religion.
## Cities, regions and territories
The biggest cities in Japan are:
- Tokyo (capital city）
- Yokohama
- Nagoya
- Osaka
- Kyoto
- Kobe
- Hiroshima
- Fukuoka
- Kitakyushu
- Sendai
- Sapporo
- Nagasaki
In Japan there are seven traditional regions:
- Hokkaido
- Tohoku
- Kanto
- Chubu
- Kansai
- Chugoku
- Shikoku
- Kyushu
### Territorial problem
Since Japan is an island nation, Japan has several problems over territory because maritime boundaries can be hard to protect. These days, Japan is competing for at least 4 different territories. It cannot agree with some neighboring countries on whether the land belongs to Japan or the other country.
- Senkaku Islands problem (with China and Taiwan)
- Liancourt Rocks island problem (with South Korea)
- Southern Chishima Islands problem (with Russia)
- Sea of Japan problem (with South Korea and North Korea)
## Public transportation
There are several important international airports in Japan. Narita is the major international airport in the Tokyo area. Kansai International Airport serves as the main airport for Osaka, Kobe, and Kyoto. Chūbu Centrair International Airport near Nagoya is the newest of the three. Haneda Airport is close to central Tokyo and is the largest domestic airport in the country.
The Shinkansen is one of the fastest trains in the world and connects cities in Honshu and Kyushu. Networks of public and private railways are over almost all the country. People mostly travel between cities in buses.
## Subdivisions
Modern Japan is divided into 47 prefectures. Before the Meiji period (1868-1912), the nation was divided into provinces which were consolidated in the prefectural system.
|style="padding-right:1em; vertical-align:top;"|--- 1. Hokkaidō|style="padding-right:1em; vertical-align:top;"|--- 2. Aomori 3. Iwate 4. Miyagi 5. Akita 6. Yamagata 7. Fukushima|style="padding-right:1em; vertical-align:top;"|--- 8. Ibaraki 9. Tochigi 10. Gunma 11. Saitama 12. Chiba 13. Tokyo 14. Kanagawa|style="padding-right:1em; vertical-align:top;"|--- 15. Niigata 16. Toyama 17. Ishikawa 18. Fukui 19. Yamanashi 20. Nagano 21. Gifu 22. Shizuoka 23. Aichi|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|style="padding-right:1em; vertical-align:top;"|--- 24. Mie 25. Shiga 26. Kyoto 27. Osaka 28. Hyōgo 29. Nara 30. Wakayama|style="padding-right:1em; vertical-align:top;"|--- 31. Tottori 32. Shimane 33. Okayama 34. Hiroshima 35. Yamaguchi|style="padding-right:1em; vertical-align:top;"|--- 36. Tokushima 37. Kagawa 38. Ehime 39. Kōchi|style="padding-right:1em; vertical-align:top;"|--- 40. Fukuoka 41. Saga 42. Nagasaki 43. Kumamoto 44. Ōita 45. Miyazaki 46. Kagoshima 47. Okinawa|
## Sports
Japan has many traditional sports such as sumo, judo, karate, kyudo, aikido, iaido and kendo. Also, there are sports which were imported from the West such as baseball, soccer, rugby, golf and skiing. Baseball is the most popular sport.
Japan has taken part in the Olympic Games since 1912. It hosted the Olympic Games in 1964, 1972, 1998 and 2020. From 1912 until now, Japanese sportspeople have won 398 medals in total.
Professional sports are also popular and many sports such as baseball (see Pacific League and Central League), soccer (see List of Japanese football teams), sumo, American football, basketball and volleyball, are played professionally.
## Related pages
- Japanese food
- Japanese language
- Japanese calendar
## Other websites
- Government
- Kantei.go.jp, official prime ministerial and cabinet site
- Ministry of Foreign Affairs, papers on Japan's foreign policy, education programs, culture and life
- National Diet Library
- Sntv24samachar
- Shugi-in.go.jp, official site of the House of Representatives
- Chief of State and Cabinet Members. .
## Infobox (country)
- **conventional long name**: Japan
- **common name**: Japan
- **linking name**: Japan
- **image flag**: Flag of Japan.svg
- **alt flag**: Centered deep red circle on a white rectangle
- **image coat**: Imperial Seal of Japan.svg
- **alt coat**: Golden circle subdivided by golden wedges with rounded outer edges and thin black outlines
- **symbol type**: Imperial crest
- **other symbol**:
- **other symbol type**: Government crest of Japan
State Seal of Japan
- **national anthem**:
- **image map**: Japan (orthographic projection).svg
- **map width**: 220px
- **alt map**: Projection of Asia with Japan's Area coloured green
- **map caption**: Area controlled by Japan shown in green—claimed, but uncontrolled shown in light green
- **capital**: Tokyo
- **largest city**: capital
- **languages type**: National language
- **languages**: Japanese language, Japanese
- **ethnic groups year**: 2011
- **demonym**: Japanese people, Japanese
- **government type**: Unitary state, Unitary Parliamentary system, parliamentary constitutional monarchy
- **leader title1**: Emperor of Japan, Emperor
- **leader name1**: Naruhito
- **leader title2**: Prime Minister of Japan, Prime Minister
- **leader name2**: Sanae Takaichi
- **leader title3**: Deputy Prime Minister of Japan, Deputy Prime Minister
- **leader name3**: Vacant
- **legislature**: National Diet
- **upper house**: House of Councillors (Japan), House of Councillors
- **lower house**: House of Representatives (Japan), House of Representatives
- **sovereignty type**: History of Japan, Formation
- **established event1**: National Foundation Day
- **established date1**: February 11, 660 BC
- **established event2**: Meiji Constitution
- **established date2**: November 29, 1890
- **established date3**: May 3, 1947
- **area km2**: 377,972
- **area rank**: 61st
- **percent water**: 1.40 (as of 2015)
- **population census**: 126,572,604
- **population census year**: 2017
- **population census rank**: 10th
- **population density km2**: 336
- **population density rank**: 36th
- **gdp ppp**: $5.420 trillion
- **gdp ppp year**: 2025
- **gdp ppp rank**: 6th
- **gdp ppp per capita**: $42,960
- **gdp ppp per capita rank**: 27th
- **gdp nominal**: $4.841 trillion
- **gdp nominal year**: 2023
- **gdp nominal rank**: 4th
- **gdp nominal per capita**: $38,981
- **gdp nominal per capita rank**: 20th
- **gini**: 37.6
- **gini year**: 2008
- **gini rank**: 76th
- **hdi**: 0.903
- **hdi year**: 2015
- **hdi change**: increase
- **hdi rank**: 17th
- **currency**: Japanese yen, Yen (¥)
- **currency code**: JPY
- **time zone**: Japan Standard Time, JST
- **utc offset**: +9
- **utc offset dst**: +9
- **time zone dst**: not observed
- **drives on**: left
- **calling code**: Telephone numbers in Japan, +81
- **cctld**: .jp
- **official website**: [http://www.japan.go.jp/index.html www.japan.go.jp]
- **population density sq mi**: 882.7
- **iso3166code**: JP
## Infobox (chinese)
- **title**: Japan
- **kanji**: 日本国
- **kyujitai**: 日本國
- **katakana**: ニッポンコク
ニホンコク
- **hiragana**: にっぽんこく
にほんこく
- **l**: State of Japan
- **romaji**: Nippon-koku
Nihon-koku
- **revhep**: Nippon-koku
Nihon-koku
- **altname**: State of Japan | high | false | false |
404 | Jargon | **Jargon** is a special way to use words that are shared only by a certain group of people. They may not mean what the [dictionary](206) says they mean. They have different [meaning](467197)s to the people using them than their everyday meaning.
For example, the ordinary words _boot_, _net_, and _web_ also have special meanings for users of [computer](112)s, the [Internet](362), and the [World Wide Web](905). These, and to [flame](66726), to [ping](376380) and many [acronym](5008)s are part of [net jargon](540).
An _acronym_ means that only some of the letters in the word or phrase are used. Often this is the first letter of each word. Other acronyms found online are simply common shorthand.
Usually, more jargon is created over time.
Jargon is common in the [military](3516) and other complex organisations. It includes [phrase](3825)s like [SNAFU](5026).
Jargon can be used by a [clique](18300) to prevent others from joining or understanding, but it also is often just used because it is shorter. | **Jargon** is a special way to use words that are shared only by a certain group of people. They may not mean what the dictionary says they mean. They have different meanings to the people using them than their everyday meaning.
For example, the ordinary words _boot_, _net_, and _web_ also have special meanings for users of computers, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. These, and to flame, to ping and many acronyms are part of net jargon.
An _acronym_ means that only some of the letters in the word or phrase are used. Often this is the first letter of each word. Other acronyms found online are simply common shorthand.
Usually, more jargon is created over time.
Jargon is common in the military and other complex organisations. It includes phrases like SNAFU.
Jargon can be used by a clique to prevent others from joining or understanding, but it also is often just used because it is shorter. | medium | false | false |
408 | Jupiter | **Jupiter** is the largest [planet](639) in the [Solar System](800). It is the fifth planet from the [Sun](44408). Jupiter is a [gas giant](24060) because it is large and made mostly of [gas](3283). Gas giants are a subtype of [giant planet](805142)s. The other gas [giant planet](805142)s in the Solar System are Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.
## Infobox (planet)
- **name**: Jupiter
- **symbol**:
- **image**: Jupiter and its shrunken Great Red Spot.jpg
- **image alt**: An image of Jupiter taken by the Hubble Space Telescope
- **caption**: Full-disc view in natural color in April 2014
- **background**: #f8f9fa
- **named after**: Jupiter (mythology), Jupiter
- **epoch**: J2000
- **time periastron**: January 21, 2023
- **asc node**: 100.464°
- **arg peri**: 273.867°
- **mean anomaly**: 20.020°
- **satellites**: moons of Jupiter, 95 ()
- **mean radius**:
- **surface grav**:
2.528 g-force, g
- **rotation**: (9 h 55 m 33 s)
- **sidereal day**: 9.925 hours (9 h 55 m 30 s)
- **axial tilt**: 3.13° (to orbit)
- **right asc north pole**: 268.057°;
- **declination**: 64.495°
- **albedo**: 0.503 (Bond albedo, Bond)
0.538 (Geometric albedo, geometric)
- **magnitude**: −2.94 to −1.66
- **angular size**: 29.8" to 50.1"
- **adjectives**: wikt:Jovian, Jovian
- **temp name1**: 1 bar (unit), bar
- **mean temp 1**: 165 Kelvin, K
- **temp name2**: 0.1 bar
- **min temp 2**: 78 K
- **mean temp 2**: 128 K
- **max temp 2**: 1000 k
- **atmosphere**: yes | **Jupiter** is the largest planet in the Solar System. It is the fifth planet from the Sun. Jupiter is a gas giant because it is large and made mostly of gas. Gas giants are a subtype of giant planets. The other gas giant planets in the Solar System are Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.
## Infobox (planet)
- **name**: Jupiter
- **symbol**:
- **image**: Jupiter and its shrunken Great Red Spot.jpg
- **image alt**: An image of Jupiter taken by the Hubble Space Telescope
- **caption**: Full-disc view in natural color in April 2014
- **background**: #f8f9fa
- **named after**: Jupiter (mythology), Jupiter
- **epoch**: J2000
- **time periastron**: January 21, 2023
- **asc node**: 100.464°
- **arg peri**: 273.867°
- **mean anomaly**: 20.020°
- **satellites**: moons of Jupiter, 95 ()
- **mean radius**:
- **surface grav**:
2.528 g-force, g
- **rotation**: (9 h 55 m 33 s)
- **sidereal day**: 9.925 hours (9 h 55 m 30 s)
- **axial tilt**: 3.13° (to orbit)
- **right asc north pole**: 268.057°;
- **declination**: 64.495°
- **albedo**: 0.503 (Bond albedo, Bond)
0.538 (Geometric albedo, geometric)
- **magnitude**: −2.94 to −1.66
- **angular size**: 29.8" to 50.1"
- **adjectives**: wikt:Jovian, Jovian
- **temp name1**: 1 bar (unit), bar
- **mean temp 1**: 165 Kelvin, K
- **temp name2**: 0.1 bar
- **min temp 2**: 78 K
- **mean temp 2**: 128 K
- **max temp 2**: 1000 k
- **atmosphere**: yes | high | true | false |
410 | King | A **king** is usually a male [monarch](3601) who rules a [country](121) or [territory](156768) which is a [monarchy](4073). The person usually [inherits](32618) the title and position. A king comes to power when the previous [monarch](3601) dies, who is usually a family member of his, most likely a parent. Sometimes a person may become king due to the previous monarch's [abdication](48044), for example [George VI](7297) (who became [King of Britain](39626) after his brother decided to abdicate).
If a country has a king or a queen, that means it is a [monarchy](4073). A country which a king or queen rules is called a [kingdom](9597).
For most of history, most countries were ruled in this way, especially in [Europe](216). However, most countries, such as [France](291), decided to become [republics](4978). Some, such as the [United Kingdom](856), still have a [royal family](22334). In some countries, people chose a new king from other people to decide from.
The wife of a king is called a [queen](3309). A woman who becomes a ruler because of inheritance is also called a queen.
If there is a queen without a husband she might be inducted as the king in certain monarchies in Africa and Europe. Her Royal Majesty Queen Diambi is the current female king of the Bakwa Luntu People of Central Kasaï, in the Democratic Republic of Congo.
In historic [Ireland](361) there were clans and dynasties. Niall of the nine hostages was a famous king of Ireland.
Shah (Persian: شاه) is a Persian word which means the king or ruler of a country. The term "Shah" often means [Mohammad Reza Pahlavi](65020), Shah of [Iran](3772) from 1949 to 1979.
Some modern kings today include [Charles III](103027) of the [United Kingdom](856) and Felipe VI of [Spain](219832).
## Related pages
- [Shah](65119)
- [Emperor](9224)
- [Prince](6710)
- [Queen](3309)
- [Princess](6711)
- [Sultan](22214)
- [Duke](6591) | A **king** is usually a male monarch who rules a country or territory which is a monarchy. The person usually inherits the title and position. A king comes to power when the previous monarch dies, who is usually a family member of his, most likely a parent. Sometimes a person may become king due to the previous monarch's abdication, for example George VI (who became King of Britain after his brother decided to abdicate).
If a country has a king or a queen, that means it is a monarchy. A country which a king or queen rules is called a kingdom.
For most of history, most countries were ruled in this way, especially in Europe. However, most countries, such as France, decided to become republics. Some, such as the United Kingdom, still have a royal family. In some countries, people chose a new king from other people to decide from.
The wife of a king is called a queen. A woman who becomes a ruler because of inheritance is also called a queen.
If there is a queen without a husband she might be inducted as the king in certain monarchies in Africa and Europe. Her Royal Majesty Queen Diambi is the current female king of the Bakwa Luntu People of Central Kasaï, in the Democratic Republic of Congo.
In historic Ireland there were clans and dynasties. Niall of the nine hostages was a famous king of Ireland.
Shah (Persian: شاه) is a Persian word which means the king or ruler of a country. The term "Shah" often means Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Shah of Iran from 1949 to 1979.
Some modern kings today include Charles III of the United Kingdom and Felipe VI of Spain.
## Related pages
- Shah
- Emperor
- Prince
- Queen
- Princess
- Sultan
- Duke | high | false | false |
411 | Knowledge | **Knowledge** is the collection of [fact](9691)s, [skill](21759)s, and understanding that people gain through [learning](16872), [experience](40356), thinking, or [discovery](159045). It can come from things we are taught, things we figure out ourselves, or things we observe in the world. Some knowledge is easy to explain, like facts in textbooks or math formulas, this is called explicit knowledge. Other knowledge is harder to put into words, like how to ride a bike or perform [surgery](13966), this is called tacit knowledge. It lives in our actions, habits, and personal experiences. In [philosophy](590), knowledge has often been defined as “justified true belief.” This means that for someone to know something, they must believe it, have good reasons for believing it, and it must actually be true. However, some problems, like the “Gettier cases”, show that this definition might not always work. These cases suggest someone can have a belief that is true and has reasons behind it, but still not really have knowledge. Because of this, other ideas like reliabilism (trusting reliable ways of knowing) and virtue epistemology (focusing on intellectual character) were developed to better explain what knowledge really is.
There are different kinds of knowledge. Propositional knowledge is “knowing that” something is true, like knowing that [water](939) boils at 100°C. Procedural knowledge is “knowing how” to do something, like solving a [puzzle](62663) or coding. Experiential knowledge is “knowing by experience,” like recognizing a friend’s [voice](13785) or knowing how a certain [food](280) tastes. Each of these kinds uses different parts of the brain and different types of thinking. The study of knowledge is called [epistemology](7253). It looks at questions like “Where does knowledge come from?” and “What can we really know?” Different thinkers have different ideas. [Empiricist](134481)s believe knowledge comes from what we see, hear, and touch. [Rationalist](58936)s believe we are born with some ideas and use reason to gain knowledge. [Constructivist](270750)s think we build knowledge ourselves through experience, culture, and learning from others.
Knowledge grows and improves through careful research methods like the [scientific method](3280). This includes testing ideas, sharing results with other scientists ([peer review](12379)), and checking if experiments can be repeated. These steps help make sure knowledge is reliable. But in areas like [art](6) or [ethics](226), people may have different opinions or values, so knowledge can be more personal or open to interpretation. Societies keep and share knowledge in many ways. [Universities](884), [libraries](446), and the [internet](362) store a huge amount of information. Other ways, like storytelling, traditions, or learning from elders, are especially important in cultures that do not rely as much on [writing](3681). These methods help pass down useful knowledge from one generation to the next.
In information science, there’s a difference between data, information, and knowledge. [Data](2958) is raw facts with no meaning, like numbers on a screen. [Information](3609) is when that data is organized to make sense. Knowledge is when the information is put into context so that it can help someone make a decision or take action. For example, knowing it’s 35°C outside is information; understanding that it is too hot to play outside for long without water is knowledge. [Neuroscience](55030) has found that knowledge is stored in networks of [neuron](4367)s. The cortex and [hippocampus](178012) are two key areas that help us remember things. [Sleep](22224), [emotion](20124)s, and how we learn something can all affect how well we remember and use knowledge later. For example, if something is exciting or emotional, you are more likely to remember it. In [artificial intelligence (AI)](6360), teaching computers to “know” things is a big challenge. Old systems used strict rules to solve problems, like expert systems. Newer models, like neural networks, try to imitate how human brains work by learning patterns and relationships in data. However, even the best AI today does not really understand things like people do. It cannot think about its own [thought](61327)s or reflect on what it knows.
Knowledge can belong to individuals or groups. In companies or teams, knowledge management is used to organize what people know and help everyone share and use that knowledge well. Techniques like knowledge audits and communities of practice help keep useful skills from being lost when people leave or retire. Knowledge is not always neutral or free. In history, powerful groups have tried to control what others are allowed to know. For example, the [Catholic Church](10754) once banned [book](3686)s that said the [Earth](219) moves around the [Sun](44408). Today, [algorithm](170677)s on social media can create “echo chambers” where people only see information they agree with. This shows that knowledge can be used for power, control, or influence.
## Religion and knowledge
Knowledge in religion is different in that it depends on faith, [belief](18135) and the [authority](8463) of religious leaders, not on evidence of a scientific or legal kind. There are differing views on whether religious statements should be regarded as knowledge.
In many expressions of [Christianity](219595), such as [Catholicism](7160) and [Anglicanism](61583), knowledge is one of the seven gifts of the [Holy Spirit](17470).
In the [Garden of Eden](69704) knowledge is the factor that made humans greedy and treacherous. But in the [Book of Proverbs](102540) it states: 'to be wise you must first obey the LORD' (9:10).
In Islam, knowledge has great significance. "The All-Knowing" (_al-ʿAlīm_) is one of the Names of God, reflecting distinct properties of God in Islam. The [Qur'an](4449) asserts that knowledge comes from God and various _[hadith](66140)_ encourage getting knowledge. [Muhammad](12702) is reported to have said "Seek knowledge from the cradle to the grave" and "Verily the men of knowledge are the inheritors of the prophets". Islamic scholars, theologians and jurists are often given the title _alim_, meaning 'knowledgeable'. | **Knowledge** is the collection of facts, skills, and understanding that people gain through learning, experience, thinking, or discovery. It can come from things we are taught, things we figure out ourselves, or things we observe in the world. Some knowledge is easy to explain, like facts in textbooks or math formulas, this is called explicit knowledge. Other knowledge is harder to put into words, like how to ride a bike or perform surgery, this is called tacit knowledge. It lives in our actions, habits, and personal experiences. In philosophy, knowledge has often been defined as “justified true belief.” This means that for someone to know something, they must believe it, have good reasons for believing it, and it must actually be true. However, some problems, like the “Gettier cases”, show that this definition might not always work. These cases suggest someone can have a belief that is true and has reasons behind it, but still not really have knowledge. Because of this, other ideas like reliabilism (trusting reliable ways of knowing) and virtue epistemology (focusing on intellectual character) were developed to better explain what knowledge really is.
There are different kinds of knowledge. Propositional knowledge is “knowing that” something is true, like knowing that water boils at 100°C. Procedural knowledge is “knowing how” to do something, like solving a puzzle or coding. Experiential knowledge is “knowing by experience,” like recognizing a friend’s voice or knowing how a certain food tastes. Each of these kinds uses different parts of the brain and different types of thinking. The study of knowledge is called epistemology. It looks at questions like “Where does knowledge come from?” and “What can we really know?” Different thinkers have different ideas. Empiricists believe knowledge comes from what we see, hear, and touch. Rationalists believe we are born with some ideas and use reason to gain knowledge. Constructivists think we build knowledge ourselves through experience, culture, and learning from others.
Knowledge grows and improves through careful research methods like the scientific method. This includes testing ideas, sharing results with other scientists (peer review), and checking if experiments can be repeated. These steps help make sure knowledge is reliable. But in areas like art or ethics, people may have different opinions or values, so knowledge can be more personal or open to interpretation. Societies keep and share knowledge in many ways. Universities, libraries, and the internet store a huge amount of information. Other ways, like storytelling, traditions, or learning from elders, are especially important in cultures that do not rely as much on writing. These methods help pass down useful knowledge from one generation to the next.
In information science, there’s a difference between data, information, and knowledge. Data is raw facts with no meaning, like numbers on a screen. Information is when that data is organized to make sense. Knowledge is when the information is put into context so that it can help someone make a decision or take action. For example, knowing it’s 35°C outside is information; understanding that it is too hot to play outside for long without water is knowledge. Neuroscience has found that knowledge is stored in networks of neurons. The cortex and hippocampus are two key areas that help us remember things. Sleep, emotions, and how we learn something can all affect how well we remember and use knowledge later. For example, if something is exciting or emotional, you are more likely to remember it. In artificial intelligence (AI), teaching computers to “know” things is a big challenge. Old systems used strict rules to solve problems, like expert systems. Newer models, like neural networks, try to imitate how human brains work by learning patterns and relationships in data. However, even the best AI today does not really understand things like people do. It cannot think about its own thoughts or reflect on what it knows.
Knowledge can belong to individuals or groups. In companies or teams, knowledge management is used to organize what people know and help everyone share and use that knowledge well. Techniques like knowledge audits and communities of practice help keep useful skills from being lost when people leave or retire. Knowledge is not always neutral or free. In history, powerful groups have tried to control what others are allowed to know. For example, the Catholic Church once banned books that said the Earth moves around the Sun. Today, algorithms on social media can create “echo chambers” where people only see information they agree with. This shows that knowledge can be used for power, control, or influence.
## Religion and knowledge
Knowledge in religion is different in that it depends on faith, belief and the authority of religious leaders, not on evidence of a scientific or legal kind. There are differing views on whether religious statements should be regarded as knowledge.
In many expressions of Christianity, such as Catholicism and Anglicanism, knowledge is one of the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit.
In the Garden of Eden knowledge is the factor that made humans greedy and treacherous. But in the Book of Proverbs it states: 'to be wise you must first obey the LORD' (9:10).
In Islam, knowledge has great significance. "The All-Knowing" (_al-ʿAlīm_) is one of the Names of God, reflecting distinct properties of God in Islam. The Qur'an asserts that knowledge comes from God and various _hadith_ encourage getting knowledge. Muhammad is reported to have said "Seek knowledge from the cradle to the grave" and "Verily the men of knowledge are the inheritors of the prophets". Islamic scholars, theologians and jurists are often given the title _alim_, meaning 'knowledgeable'. | medium | false | false |
412 | Kauai | **Kauai** (**Kaua'i** in [Hawaiian](15039)) is the second oldest (after Ni'ihau) and fourth largest of the main [Hawaiian Islands](3797), in the [United States](219587). Known also as the "Garden Isle", Kaua'i lies 73 miles (117 kilometers) across the Kauai Channel, northwest of [Honolulu](333) on [Oahu](573). It is of [volcanic](4483) origin. The highest point on the island is Kawaikini. It is located above sea level. The wettest spot on Earth, with average rainfall of a year, is just east of Mount Waialeale. The high yearly rainfall has eroded deep valleys and canyons in the central mountain. The waterfalls that have been created by erosion in canyons are now popular tourist spots.
The city of Lihue, on the island's southeast side, is the seat of [Kauai County](262433). It has a population of around 6,500, and is the main city on the island. Waimea, which is located on the island's southwest side and the first capital of Kauai, was the first place visited by [English](17307)<nowiki/>explorer Captain [James Cook](19761) in [1778](19999). It was also the first capital of Kauai. The city is at the head of one of the most beautiful canyons in the world, Waimea Canyon, whose gorge is 900 meters (3,000 feet) deep.
The island of Kauai was featured in Disney's [2002](3953) animated movie _[Lilo & Stitch](21195)_.
Lihue Airport is the only commercial airport on the island. There are two other general aviation airports on the island: Port Allen Airport, and Princeville Airport. | **Kauai** (**Kaua'i** in Hawaiian) is the second oldest (after Ni'ihau) and fourth largest of the main Hawaiian Islands, in the United States. Known also as the "Garden Isle", Kaua'i lies 73 miles (117 kilometers) across the Kauai Channel, northwest of Honolulu on Oahu. It is of volcanic origin. The highest point on the island is Kawaikini. It is located above sea level. The wettest spot on Earth, with average rainfall of a year, is just east of Mount Waialeale. The high yearly rainfall has eroded deep valleys and canyons in the central mountain. The waterfalls that have been created by erosion in canyons are now popular tourist spots.
The city of Lihue, on the island's southeast side, is the seat of Kauai County. It has a population of around 6,500, and is the main city on the island. Waimea, which is located on the island's southwest side and the first capital of Kauai, was the first place visited by English<nowiki/>explorer Captain James Cook in 1778. It was also the first capital of Kauai. The city is at the head of one of the most beautiful canyons in the world, Waimea Canyon, whose gorge is 900 meters (3,000 feet) deep.
The island of Kauai was featured in Disney's 2002 animated movie _Lilo & Stitch_.
Lihue Airport is the only commercial airport on the island. There are two other general aviation airports on the island: Port Allen Airport, and Princeville Airport. | medium | false | false |
413 | Kahoʻolawe | **Kahoolawe** is the smallest of the eight main [volcanic](4483) islands of [Hawaii](3797). It is west of [Maui](477) and south of [Lanai](433). It is roughly 11 miles long by across (). The highest point, Lua Makika, is above sea level. The island is dry because its low elevation does not cause much [rain](3990) to fall from the northeastern trade winds.
Kahoolawe was used as a gunfire and bombing target by the United States [military](3516) during [World War II](219837). It was a defense training area for the [United States Navy](21540) from around 1941 until May 1994. Popular opinion in the state against this practice brought the end to this use. The Navy has since been trying to cleanup unexploded bombs and explosive shells from the island. Explosives are still buried or lying on the ground. Other items have washed down gullies and still other unexploded ordnance is underwater offshore. In 1981, the entire island was included on the [National Register of Historic Places](105765).
The island is planned to be given back to the Hawaiian people. In 1993, the [U.S. Congress](17795) passed a law that "recognized the cultural importance of the island, required the Navy to return the island to the State, and directed the Navy to do an unexploded ordnance cleanup and environmental restoration" The turnover officially occurred on [November 11](10081), [2003](3954), but the cleanup has not yet been completed. The U.S. Navy was given $400 million and 10 years to complete the large cleanup task, but this work has gone much slower than planned.
After the cleanup is finished, the restoration of Kahoolawe will need ways to control [erosion](277882), restore the [plant](628) life, recharge the [water table](673765), and slowly replace alien plants with native ones. Plans will include methods for damming gullies and reducing rainwater runoff. Non-natives will temporarily stabilize some areas before the permanent planting of native plants.
## Other websites
- http://www.state.hi.us/kirc/main/home.htm | **Kahoolawe** is the smallest of the eight main volcanic islands of Hawaii. It is west of Maui and south of Lanai. It is roughly 11 miles long by across (). The highest point, Lua Makika, is above sea level. The island is dry because its low elevation does not cause much rain to fall from the northeastern trade winds.
Kahoolawe was used as a gunfire and bombing target by the United States military during World War II. It was a defense training area for the United States Navy from around 1941 until May 1994. Popular opinion in the state against this practice brought the end to this use. The Navy has since been trying to cleanup unexploded bombs and explosive shells from the island. Explosives are still buried or lying on the ground. Other items have washed down gullies and still other unexploded ordnance is underwater offshore. In 1981, the entire island was included on the National Register of Historic Places.
The island is planned to be given back to the Hawaiian people. In 1993, the U.S. Congress passed a law that "recognized the cultural importance of the island, required the Navy to return the island to the State, and directed the Navy to do an unexploded ordnance cleanup and environmental restoration" The turnover officially occurred on November 11, 2003, but the cleanup has not yet been completed. The U.S. Navy was given $400 million and 10 years to complete the large cleanup task, but this work has gone much slower than planned.
After the cleanup is finished, the restoration of Kahoolawe will need ways to control erosion, restore the plant life, recharge the water table, and slowly replace alien plants with native ones. Plans will include methods for damming gullies and reducing rainwater runoff. Non-natives will temporarily stabilize some areas before the permanent planting of native plants.
## Other websites
- http://www.state.hi.us/kirc/main/home.htm | medium | false | false |
414 | Killing | **Killing** a living thing is when someone or something ends that [life](425) and makes the living thing [die](209). It means causing a death. When a human being kills another human being, it is called [murder](3706) or [homicide](26431), such as [manslaughter](9113).
[Pesticide](33539)<nowiki/>s and [herbicide](20839)<nowiki/>s are [poison](6087)s for killing bad wild small animals or plants, respectively.
When a [soldier](18429) kills another in [war](942), it is called "[combat](46532)". When the [state](798) kills a convict sentenced to capital punishment, it is called [execution](257). When someone kills a powerful person it is called [assassination](19142). When a person who wants to die kills themself it is [suicide](10277), or [euthanasia](190948) if killed by another. When people kill other people to eat them, it is called [cannibalism](7458).
## Related pages
- [Death](209)
- [Murder](3706)
- [Suicide](10277)
- [Manslaughter](9113) | **Killing** a living thing is when someone or something ends that life and makes the living thing die. It means causing a death. When a human being kills another human being, it is called murder or homicide, such as manslaughter.
Pesticide<nowiki/>s and herbicide<nowiki/>s are poisons for killing bad wild small animals or plants, respectively.
When a soldier kills another in war, it is called "combat". When the state kills a convict sentenced to capital punishment, it is called execution. When someone kills a powerful person it is called assassination. When a person who wants to die kills themself it is suicide, or euthanasia if killed by another. When people kill other people to eat them, it is called cannibalism.
## Related pages
- Death
- Murder
- Suicide
- Manslaughter | medium | false | false |
417 | Kilometre | The **kilometre** is a common [unit](872) used for longer [distance](203)s on [Earth](219). The international unit for measuring distances is the [metre](518) and a kilometre is 1000 metres. It is used in most countries for measuring road and sea distances. In the UK and the USA, the [statute](522299) [mile](501) is used more than kilometres for road distances and the nautical mile for sea distances.
It is often used to measure the speed of cars, planes and boats by saying how many kilometres it can travel in an hour. This is shown as km/h.
It is also spelled **kilometer**. This spelling is used in [American English](28).
One kilometre is 0.6214 miles (1093 yards or 3280.84 feet). This means that one mile is 1.6093 kilometres.
One kilometre is the approximate distance a healthy adult human being can walk in ten [minute](3456)
A kilometer is sometimes called a **klick**
## Related pages
- Yard (unit of length)
## Infobox (unit)
- **symbol**: km
- **standard**: metric system, metric
- **quantity**: length
- **units1**: SI units
- **units2**: imperial units, imperial/US customary units, US units
- **inunits2**:
- **units3**: nautical units | The **kilometre** is a common unit used for longer distances on Earth. The international unit for measuring distances is the metre and a kilometre is 1000 metres. It is used in most countries for measuring road and sea distances. In the UK and the USA, the statute mile is used more than kilometres for road distances and the nautical mile for sea distances.
It is often used to measure the speed of cars, planes and boats by saying how many kilometres it can travel in an hour. This is shown as km/h.
It is also spelled **kilometer**. This spelling is used in American English.
One kilometre is 0.6214 miles (1093 yards or 3280.84 feet). This means that one mile is 1.6093 kilometres.
One kilometre is the approximate distance a healthy adult human being can walk in ten minute
A kilometer is sometimes called a **klick**
## Related pages
- Yard (unit of length)
## Infobox (unit)
- **symbol**: km
- **standard**: metric system, metric
- **quantity**: length
- **units1**: SI units
- **units2**: imperial units, imperial/US customary units, US units
- **inunits2**:
- **units3**: nautical units | high | false | false |
419 | Language | **<span lang="English">Language</span>** is the normal way [human](502310)s [communicate](2817). Only [human](502310)s use language, though other animals communicate through other means. The study of language is called [linguistics](20194).
Human language has [syntax](72198), a set of [rule](12655)s for connecting [word](911)s together to make [statements](273398) and [question](3448)s. Language can also be changed, by adding new words, for example, to describe new things. Other animals may inherit a set of calls which have preset functions.
Language may be done by [speech](40654) or by [writing](3681) or by moving the hands to make [signs](25699). It follows that language is _not_ just any way of communicating. Even some human communication is not language: see [non-verbal communication](250159). Humans also use language for [thinking](61327).
When people use the word _language_, they can also mean:
1. the language of a [community](17207) or [country](121)
1. the ability of [speech](40654)
1. [formal language](51852) in [mathematics](467), [logic](4069) and computing
1. [sign language](25699) for deaf people (people who cannot hear)
1. a type of [school](118745) subject
[UNESCO](13920) says that 2,500 languages are at risk of becoming [extinct](11143).
## Universals of language
All languages share certain things which separate them from all other kinds of communication.
1. A language has rules which are shared by a community.
1. All human languages are based on [sound](686) and [hearing](13772), or in the case of [sign language](25699), [vision](34893). All the basic sound units, or [phoneme](217600)s, have this in common: they can be spoken by the human [voice](13785), and heard by the human [ear](15497).
1. The sounds come out in a [sequence](33984), not all at once. This is mimicked in writing, where the marks are put on the paper or screen in the same sequence.
1. The stream of sounds has little gaps between them and come in bigger packages. We call the bigger packets [sentence](7721)s or [question](3448)s or replies or comments.
1. In most languages, [English](2843) being one, the [syntax](72198) or order of the words can change the meaning: "the cat sat on the man" is different from "the man sat on the cat".
1. [Word](911)s (which may be made up of more than one phoneme) divide up into two classes: content and non-content. Content words have [meaning](48591): nouns, verbs, adjectives, [etc.](221). Non-content words are there to make the language work: _and_, _not_, _in_, _out_, _what_, etc. [Grammar](299) consists of studying how words fit together to mean something.
1. All languages have:
1. sentences with two types of expression: [noun](543)s and [verb](893)s: _Jill is_ here.
1. [adjective](3318)s to modify nouns: _good_ food.
1. ways of linking: sink _or_ swim.
1. dummy elements: Jill likes to swim, _so_ do I.
1. devices to order or ask questions: Get up! Are you ill?
1. Most of the languages have a [written form](33601). Before the invention of audio recording, the writing system was the only way to keep track of spoken information.
1. All languages constantly evolve. New words appear, new forms of saying things, new accents.
There are many more things in common between languages.
### Inheritance
The capacity to learn and use language is [inherited](213374). Normally, all humans are born with this capability. _Which_ language is learned by a child depends on which language is spoken by the child's community. The _capacity_ is inherited, but the particular language is learned.
Children have a special period, from about 18 months to about four years, which is critical for learning the language. If this is seriously disrupted, then their language skills will be damaged. Older people learn differently, so they seldom learn a [second language](9679) as well as they learn their native language.
## Types of language
[Mathematics](467) and [computer science](110) use created languages called [formal language](51852)s (like computer [programming language](6362)s), but these may or may not be 'true' languages. Mathematics itself is seen as a language by many. Some people consider [musical notation](87186) to be a way of writing the musical language.
[Chinese](949) is the language with the most native speakers in the world, but it is not really a language. It is a close family of [dialect](21596)s, some of which are as different as [Romance languages](9417) are from one another.
The [Russian](2991) language is one of the largest [Slavic languages](33583) ever spoken.
English is often called "the international language", or [lingua franca](257006). It is the main second language of the world and the international language of [science](700), [travel](3614), [technology](15232), [business](6642), [diplomacy](20491), and [entertainment](5300). [French](3597) had a similar status until the 20th century, and other languages had it at other times.
- **English** as a first language: 380 million.<sup>p108</sup>
- English as an official second language: up to 300 million.
- English taught as a second language, but with no official status: anyone's guess, up to 1000 million/1 billion.
- **Chinese** ([Mandarin](5403)): 390 million native speakers.<sup>p96</sup>
- Hoffish ([Swedish](27517) dialect): 176 (smallest spoken language)
Some languages are spoken only by closed ethnic groups such as [Romani](102465), which is an [Indo-Aryan language](33579) spoken only by [Roma](89852).
## Constructed languages (or made-up languages)
Some languages are made up so that a lot of people around the world can learn them, without the new languages being tied to any specific country or place. These are called [constructed language](36705)s, or conlangs. One of the most popular of these languages is [Esperanto](13331), which is sometimes called "La Internacia Lingvo," or "The International Language." Another of these languages is called [Volapük](887), which was popular about a hundred years ago but is much less popular now. It has mostly been replaced by languages like [Esperanto](13331), [Interlingua](6368), and [Ido](9680). Dialects are basically other versions of a language. For example, Hoffish is a dialect of Swedish.
Part of the reason that Volapük became unpopular is that some sounds are difficult for people who speak [Spanish](6432) or English, two of the most widely spoken languages in the world.
## Other information
Humans started using language, at the latest, 135 000 years ago, according to research (published in 2025).
## Related pages
- [Alphabet](5892)
- [Basic English](222712)
- [Sign language](25699)
- English as a foreign language
- [English language](2843)
- [Historical linguistics](441537)
- Language education
- Language families and languages
- [Linguistics](20194)
- [List of languages](4391)
- [Orthography](577)
- [Phonology](20193)
- [Second language](9679)
- [Semantics](48591)
- Speech therapy
## Other websites
- [Language (general)](http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Language_(general)) -Citizendium | **<span lang="English">Language</span>** is the normal way humans communicate. Only humans use language, though other animals communicate through other means. The study of language is called linguistics.
Human language has syntax, a set of rules for connecting words together to make statements and questions. Language can also be changed, by adding new words, for example, to describe new things. Other animals may inherit a set of calls which have preset functions.
Language may be done by speech or by writing or by moving the hands to make signs. It follows that language is _not_ just any way of communicating. Even some human communication is not language: see non-verbal communication. Humans also use language for thinking.
When people use the word _language_, they can also mean:
1. the language of a community or country
1. the ability of speech
1. formal language in mathematics, logic and computing
1. sign language for deaf people (people who cannot hear)
1. a type of school subject
UNESCO says that 2,500 languages are at risk of becoming extinct.
## Universals of language
All languages share certain things which separate them from all other kinds of communication.
1. A language has rules which are shared by a community.
1. All human languages are based on sound and hearing, or in the case of sign language, vision. All the basic sound units, or phonemes, have this in common: they can be spoken by the human voice, and heard by the human ear.
1. The sounds come out in a sequence, not all at once. This is mimicked in writing, where the marks are put on the paper or screen in the same sequence.
1. The stream of sounds has little gaps between them and come in bigger packages. We call the bigger packets sentences or questions or replies or comments.
1. In most languages, English being one, the syntax or order of the words can change the meaning: "the cat sat on the man" is different from "the man sat on the cat".
1. Words (which may be made up of more than one phoneme) divide up into two classes: content and non-content. Content words have meaning: nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc.. Non-content words are there to make the language work: _and_, _not_, _in_, _out_, _what_, etc. Grammar consists of studying how words fit together to mean something.
1. All languages have:
1. sentences with two types of expression: nouns and verbs: _Jill is_ here.
1. adjectives to modify nouns: _good_ food.
1. ways of linking: sink _or_ swim.
1. dummy elements: Jill likes to swim, _so_ do I.
1. devices to order or ask questions: Get up! Are you ill?
1. Most of the languages have a written form. Before the invention of audio recording, the writing system was the only way to keep track of spoken information.
1. All languages constantly evolve. New words appear, new forms of saying things, new accents.
There are many more things in common between languages.
### Inheritance
The capacity to learn and use language is inherited. Normally, all humans are born with this capability. _Which_ language is learned by a child depends on which language is spoken by the child's community. The _capacity_ is inherited, but the particular language is learned.
Children have a special period, from about 18 months to about four years, which is critical for learning the language. If this is seriously disrupted, then their language skills will be damaged. Older people learn differently, so they seldom learn a second language as well as they learn their native language.
## Types of language
Mathematics and computer science use created languages called formal languages (like computer programming languages), but these may or may not be 'true' languages. Mathematics itself is seen as a language by many. Some people consider musical notation to be a way of writing the musical language.
Chinese is the language with the most native speakers in the world, but it is not really a language. It is a close family of dialects, some of which are as different as Romance languages are from one another.
The Russian language is one of the largest Slavic languages ever spoken.
English is often called "the international language", or lingua franca. It is the main second language of the world and the international language of science, travel, technology, business, diplomacy, and entertainment. French had a similar status until the 20th century, and other languages had it at other times.
- **English** as a first language: 380 million.<sup>p108</sup>
- English as an official second language: up to 300 million.
- English taught as a second language, but with no official status: anyone's guess, up to 1000 million/1 billion.
- **Chinese** (Mandarin): 390 million native speakers.<sup>p96</sup>
- Hoffish (Swedish dialect): 176 (smallest spoken language)
Some languages are spoken only by closed ethnic groups such as Romani, which is an Indo-Aryan language spoken only by Roma.
## Constructed languages (or made-up languages)
Some languages are made up so that a lot of people around the world can learn them, without the new languages being tied to any specific country or place. These are called constructed languages, or conlangs. One of the most popular of these languages is Esperanto, which is sometimes called "La Internacia Lingvo," or "The International Language." Another of these languages is called Volapük, which was popular about a hundred years ago but is much less popular now. It has mostly been replaced by languages like Esperanto, Interlingua, and Ido. Dialects are basically other versions of a language. For example, Hoffish is a dialect of Swedish.
Part of the reason that Volapük became unpopular is that some sounds are difficult for people who speak Spanish or English, two of the most widely spoken languages in the world.
## Other information
Humans started using language, at the latest, 135 000 years ago, according to research (published in 2025).
## Related pages
- Alphabet
- Basic English
- Sign language
- English as a foreign language
- English language
- Historical linguistics
- Language education
- Language families and languages
- Linguistics
- List of languages
- Orthography
- Phonology
- Second language
- Semantics
- Speech therapy
## Other websites
- Language (general)) -Citizendium | high | false | false |
423 | Leisure | **Leisure** (or **free time**) is when a person can choose what to do. During a person's leisure time, they do not have an obligation to be at [school](118745) or work at a [job](11487). During leisure time, people can do fun activities, [family](3284) activities, or other non-[work](46734) activities, such as hobbies.
Common forms of recreation or leisure are:
- Playing [sport](699)s, such as [football](3039) or [hockey](9451)
- Playing [game](3196)s, such as chess or cards
- Exercising (e.g. running or lifting weights)
- Watching [television](1999) and movies
- Listening to [music](472)
- [Hobbies](3453), such as playing [piano](6693) or [guitar](13183), knitting, or sewing
- [Travel](3614)ling
- [Reading](652)
- [Drawing](5316)
- [Painting](11274)
- [Meditating](15457)
A vacation or [holiday](25893) is one example of a setting that is specifically for leisure. During vacation, some people travel to a different region or country and stay at a [hotel](19364) so that they can do things they could not do near home. Other people prefer to spend their vacation time at home in their own community.
In rich industrialized countries such as the [US](219587) and [Canada](219589) as well as in most European countries, workers are allowed to stay home on the [weekend](11063) (usually [Saturday](5784) and [Sunday](3837)) and use it as leisure time. People in underdeveloped countries usually have less leisure time, as they have to work longer hours and more days per year. | **Leisure** (or **free time**) is when a person can choose what to do. During a person's leisure time, they do not have an obligation to be at school or work at a job. During leisure time, people can do fun activities, family activities, or other non-work activities, such as hobbies.
Common forms of recreation or leisure are:
- Playing sports, such as football or hockey
- Playing games, such as chess or cards
- Exercising (e.g. running or lifting weights)
- Watching television and movies
- Listening to music
- Hobbies, such as playing piano or guitar, knitting, or sewing
- Travelling
- Reading
- Drawing
- Painting
- Meditating
A vacation or holiday is one example of a setting that is specifically for leisure. During vacation, some people travel to a different region or country and stay at a hotel so that they can do things they could not do near home. Other people prefer to spend their vacation time at home in their own community.
In rich industrialized countries such as the US and Canada as well as in most European countries, workers are allowed to stay home on the weekend (usually Saturday and Sunday) and use it as leisure time. People in underdeveloped countries usually have less leisure time, as they have to work longer hours and more days per year. | medium | false | false |
424 | Live | **Live** can be a [verb](893). It rhymes with "give". "To live" means "to be alive" (and it is not dead). If you live, then you have [life](425).
It can be used in a general way:
- "I live in London".
- "I live in a house".
- "A person can always live in fear".
**Live** can be an [adjective](3318). It rhymes with "five".
- In [television](1999), a "live" program is one where what is happening can be seen at the same time as it is happening. Sports program are usually "live".
- In [music](472), If a [CD](8026) is a "live recording" it means a recording which was made at a [concert](23103) with an [audience](30451) present. If it is not a live recording it may be a recording made in a [studio](43904).
- [Live album](13190)
- "Live" can also mean "full of energy" or simply "happening now". Something that is being talked about in the [newspaper](7665)s at the moment can be a "live issue". | **Live** can be a verb. It rhymes with "give". "To live" means "to be alive" (and it is not dead). If you live, then you have life.
It can be used in a general way:
- "I live in London".
- "I live in a house".
- "A person can always live in fear".
**Live** can be an adjective. It rhymes with "five".
- In television, a "live" program is one where what is happening can be seen at the same time as it is happening. Sports program are usually "live".
- In music, If a CD is a "live recording" it means a recording which was made at a concert with an audience present. If it is not a live recording it may be a recording made in a studio.
- Live album
- "Live" can also mean "full of energy" or simply "happening now". Something that is being talked about in the newspapers at the moment can be a "live issue". | high | false | false |
425 | Life | **Life** is a concept in [biology](101). It is about what separates a living thing from dead matter.
Most life on [Earth](219) is powered by solar energy: the only known exceptions are the chemo-synthetic bacteria living around the [hydrothermal vent](55034)s on the ocean floor. All life on Earth is based on the [chemistry](108) of [carbon](4887) compounds, involving long-chain molecules such as [protein](636)s and [nucleic acid](40784). With [water](939), which all life needs, the long molecules are wrapped inside [membranes](15293) as [cell](130418)s. This may or may not be true of all possible forms of life in the [Universe](858): it is true of all life on Earth today.
## Summary
Living things, or organisms, can be explained as [open systems](104247). They are always changing, because they exchange [material](4363)s and [information](3609) with their [environment](13637). They undergo [metabolism](511), maintain [homeostasis](34600), possess a capacity to [grow](71084), respond to [stimuli](59063) and [reproduce](66201).
Through [natural selection](71578), they adapt to their environment in successive generations. More complex living organisms can communicate by various means. Many life forms can be found on [Earth](219). The properties common to these organisms—[plant](628)s, [animal](62)s, [fungi](11614), [protist](21723)s, [archaea](24960), and [bacteria](10861)—are a carbon and water-based cellular form with complex [organization](32644) and heritable [genetic](9424) information.
The systems that make up life have many levels of organization. From smallest to biggest, they are: molecule, cell, [tissue](13997) (group of cells with a common purpose), organ (part of the body with a purpose), [organ system](151697) (group of organs that work together), organism, [population](4037) (group of organisms of the same species), [community](828318) (all of the organisms that interact in an area), [ecosystem](30260) (all of the organisms in an area and the non-living surroundings), and [biosphere](38924) (all parts of the Earth that have life).
At present, the [Earth](219) is the only planet humans have detailed information about. The question of whether life exists elsewhere in the Universe is open. There have been a number of claims of life elsewhere in the Universe. None of these have been confirmed so far. The best evidence of life outside of Earth is are nucleic acids that have been found in certain types of meteorites.
## Definitions
One explanation of life is called the [cell theory](48345). The cell theory has three basic points: all living things are made up of cells. The cell is the smallest living thing that can do all the things needed for life. All cells must come from pre-existing cells.
Something is often said to be alive if it:
- grows,
- takes in [food](280), uses the [food](280) for [energy](4115), and passes [waste](19595) products (see [metabolism](511)),
- moves: it must either move itself, or have movement inside itself,
- [reproduces](66201), either [sexually](31142) (with another living thing) or [asexually](31827), by creating copies of itself,
- reacts to its surroundings,
- functions
However, not all living things fit every point on this list.
- [Mule](15557)s cannot reproduce, and neither can worker ants.
- Viruses and spores are not actively alive (metabolising) until the conditions are right.
They do, however, fit the biochemical definitions: they are made of the same kind of chemicals.
The [thermodynamic](25178) definition of life is any system which can keep its [entropy](146726) levels below maximum (usually through [adaptation](191821) and [mutation](35685)s).
### A modern approach
A modern definition was given by [Humberto Maturana](415214) and [Francisco Varela](415219) in 1980, to which they gave the name _[autopoiesis](415260)_:
1. The production of their own components
1. The correct assembly of these components
1. Continuous repair and maintenance of their own existence.
Roth commented that "In short, organisms are self-reproducing and self-maintaining, or 'autopoietic', systems". This approach makes use of [molecular biology](72834) ideas and [systems science](104246) ideas.
### Chemistry
Life on Earth is made from [organic compound](4110)s—molecules that contain carbon. Four types of long-chain molecules ([macromolecule](42080)s) are important: [carbohydrate](119077)s, [lipid](87074)s, [protein](636)s, and [nucleic acid](40784)s.
- Simple carbohydrates (sugars) are used for [energy](4115), or as a building block. Complex carbohydrates, like starch and cellulose, can keep energy for a long time. They are also used to make a strong structure, like a [plant stem](67010).
- Lipids can be [insulation](1124775) to keep a living thing warm, such as fat on a [penguin](7451), or to stop water from passing in or out, such as waterproof [feather](13308)s. Two layers of phospholid (a kind of lipid) make up all [cell membrane](15293)s. Some kinds of lipids are [hormone](13384)s, which send messages from one cell to another.
- Proteins, long chains of [amino acid](30387)s, have many purposes. They fold into complex shapes because their amino acids interact. Proteins are involved in many chemical reactions, to make them go faster.
- Nucleic acids, including [DNA](4472) and [RNA](16928), are long chains of [nucleotide](19460)s. There are only four kinds of nucleotides in each chain, but they are the instructions for life, like a language. Each three nucleotides tell the cell to make one amino acid. One part of a nucleic acid is the code for one protein molecule.
Almost all living things need the [chemical element](247)s carbon, [hydrogen](355), [oxygen](2949), [nitrogen](2061), [sulfur](5311), and [phosphorus](16805), to build these macromolecules. Living things also need small amounts of other elements, called _trace elements_. Water is a very important part of all living things. For example, humans are about two-thirds water. Water is a [solvent](59417) that lets molecules mix and react with other molecules.
### Energy sources
All living things need energy to survive, move, grow, and reproduce. Some can get energy from the [environment](13637) without help from other living things: these are called producers, or [autotroph](50034)s. Plants, algae, and some bacteria, a group of producers called photoautotrophs, use the sun's light for energy. When producers use light to make and store organic compounds, this is called [photosynthesis](3518). Some other producers, called [chemoautotroph](129019)s, get energy from chemicals that come out of the ocean floor in [hydrothermal vent](55034)s. Other living things get their energy from [organic compound](4110)s: these are called consumers, or [heterotroph](47652)s. Animals, fungi, most bacteria, and most protists are consumers. Consumers can eat other living things or dead material.
Both producers and consumers need to break down organic compounds to free energy. The best way to do this is aerobic respiration, which frees the most energy, but living things can only do aerobic respiration if they have oxygen (O2). They can also break down these compounds without oxygen, using [anaerobic respiration](368033) or [fermentation](7941).
## Cells
All living things have cells. Every cell has a cell membrane on the outside, and a jelly-like material that fills the inside, called [cytoplasm](16025). The membrane is important because it separates the chemicals inside and outside. Some molecules can pass through the membrane, but others cannot. Living cells have [gene](3870)s, made of DNA. Genes say to the cell what to do, like a language. One DNA molecule, with many genes, is called a [chromosome](28804). Cells can [copy themselves](45844) to make two new cells.
There are two main kinds of cells: [prokaryotic](54681) and [eukaryotic](21991). Prokaryotic cells have only a few parts. Their DNA is the shape of a circle, inside the cytoplasm, and they have no membranes inside the cell. Eukaryotic cells are more complex, and they have a [cell nucleus](42098). The DNA is inside the nucleus, and a membrane is around the nucleus. Eukaryotic cells also have other parts, called [organelle](55780)s. Some of these other organelles also have membranes.
## Types of life
Taxonomy is how lifeforms are put into groups. The smaller groups are more closely related, but the larger classes are more distantly related. The levels, or ranks, of taxonomy are [domain](67214), [kingdom](34887), [phylum](22324), [class](34888), [order](34889), [family](34890), [genus](21683), and [species](19654). There are many ideas for the meaning of [species](19654). One idea, called the [biological species concept](337535), is as follows. A species is a group of living things that can mate with each other, and whose children can make their own children.
Taxonomy aims to group together living things with a common [ancestor](19655). This can now be done by comparing their [DNA](4472). Originally, it was done by [comparing their anatomy](220215).
The three domains of life are [Bacteria](10861), [Archaea](24960), and Eukarya. Bacteria and archaea are prokaryotic and have [only one cell](21992). Bacteria range in size from 0.15 cubic [micrometre](89515)s (_[Mycoplasma](391109)_) to 200,000,000 cubic micrometres (_Thiomargarita namibiensis_). Bacteria have shapes which are useful in classification, such as round, long and thin, and [spiral](167867). Some bacteria cause diseases. Bacteria in our intestines are part of our [gut flora](297809). They break down some of our food. Both bacteria and archaea may live where larger forms of life cannot. Bacteria have a molecule called [peptidoglycan](836236) in their [cell wall](17810), but [archaea](24960) do not. Archaea have a molecule called [isoprene](789593) in their cell membrane, but bacteria do not.
Eukarya are living things with eukaryotic cells, and they can have one cell or [many cells](21995). Most eukaryotes use [sexual reproduction](31142) to make new copies of themselves. In sexual reproduction, two sex cells, one from each parent, join to make a new living thing.
[Plant](628)s are eukaryotes that use the Sun's light for energy. They include [algae](21914), which live in water, and land plants. All land plants have two forms during their [life cycle](41843), called [alternation of generations](176909). One form is diploid, where the cells have two copies of their chromosomes, and the other form is [haploid](212781), where the cells have one copy of their chromosomes. In land plants, both diploid and haploid forms have many cells. Two kinds of land plants are [vascular plant](67014)s and [bryophyte](7211)s. Vascular plants have long tissues that stretch from end to end of the plant. These tissues carry water and food. Most plants have [root](21710)s and leaves.
[Animal](62)s are eukaryotes with many cells, which have no rigid cell walls. All animals are consumers: they survive by eating other [organic](7119) material. Almost all animals have [neuron](4367)s, a signalling system. They usually have [muscle](13744)s, which make the body move. Many animals have a head and legs. Most animals are either male or female. They need a mate of the opposite [sex](3856) to make offspring. Sex cells from the male and female [can meet](13977) inside or outside the body.
Fungi are eukaryotes which may have one cell, like [yeast](55322)s, or many cells, like [mushroom](20676)s. They are [saprophyte](50347)s. Fungi break down living or dead material, so they are [decomposer](82215)s. Only fungi, and a few bacteria, can break down lignin and [cellulose](19836), two parts of [wood](6103). Some fungi are [mycorrhiza](199951). They live under ground and give nutrients to plants, like nitrogen and phosphorus. Eukaryotes that are not plants, animals, or fungi are called [protist](21723)s. Most protists live in water.
## Evolution
Over thousands or millions of years, living things can change, through the process of evolution. One kind of evolution is when a species changes over time, such as giraffes growing longer necks. Most of the time, the species becomes better suited to its environment, a process called [adaptation](191821). Evolution can also cause one group of living things to split into two groups. This is called [speciation](283786) if it makes a new species. An example is mockingbirds on the Galapagos Islands—one species of mockingbird lives on each island, but all the species split from a shared ancestor species. Groups that are bigger than species can also split from a shared ancestor—for example, reptiles and mammals. A group of living things and their shared ancestor is called a clade.
Living things can evolve to be quite different from their ancestors. As a result, parts of the body can also change. The same bone structure became the hands of humans, the hooves of horses, and the wings of birds. Different body parts that evolved from the same thing are called [homologous](267987).
[Extinction](11143) is when all members of a species die. About 99.9% of all species that have ever lived are extinct. Extinction can happen at any time, but it is more common in certain time periods called extinction events. The most recent was [65 million years ago](218549), when the [dinosaur](4455)s went extinct.
### Origin of life
By comparing [fossil](13374)s and DNA, we know that all life on Earth today had a shared ancestor, called the last universal common ancestor (LUCA). Other living things may have been alive at the same time as the LUCA, but they died out. A study from 2018 suggests that the LUCA is about 4.5 billion (4,500,000,000) years old, nearly as old as the Earth. The oldest fossil evidence of life is about 3.5 billion years old.
How did non-living material become alive? This is a difficult question. The first step must have been the creation of organic compounds. In 1953, the [Miller–Urey experiment](283182) made inorganic compounds into organic compounds, such as amino acids, using heat and energy.
Life needs a source of energy for chemical reactions. On the early Earth, the atmosphere did not have oxygen. Oxidation using the [Krebs cycle](183115), which is common today, was not possible. The Krebs cycle may have acted backwards, doing [reduction](257943) instead of oxidation, and the cycle may have made larger molecules. To make life, molecules needed to make copies of themselves. DNA and RNA make copies of themselves, but only if there is a catalyst—a compound which speeds up the chemical reaction. One guess is that RNA itself served as a catalyst. At some time, the molecules were surrounded by membranes, which made cells.
## Related pages
- [Artificial life](137611)
- [Biology](101)
- [Birth](7637)
- [Death](209)
- [Earliest known life forms](672374)
- [Evolution](8740)
- [Tree of life](285659) | **Life** is a concept in biology. It is about what separates a living thing from dead matter.
Most life on Earth is powered by solar energy: the only known exceptions are the chemo-synthetic bacteria living around the hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor. All life on Earth is based on the chemistry of carbon compounds, involving long-chain molecules such as proteins and nucleic acid. With water, which all life needs, the long molecules are wrapped inside membranes as cells. This may or may not be true of all possible forms of life in the Universe: it is true of all life on Earth today.
## Summary
Living things, or organisms, can be explained as open systems. They are always changing, because they exchange materials and information with their environment. They undergo metabolism, maintain homeostasis, possess a capacity to grow, respond to stimuli and reproduce.
Through natural selection, they adapt to their environment in successive generations. More complex living organisms can communicate by various means. Many life forms can be found on Earth. The properties common to these organisms—plants, animals, fungi, protists, archaea, and bacteria—are a carbon and water-based cellular form with complex organization and heritable genetic information.
The systems that make up life have many levels of organization. From smallest to biggest, they are: molecule, cell, tissue (group of cells with a common purpose), organ (part of the body with a purpose), organ system (group of organs that work together), organism, population (group of organisms of the same species), community (all of the organisms that interact in an area), ecosystem (all of the organisms in an area and the non-living surroundings), and biosphere (all parts of the Earth that have life).
At present, the Earth is the only planet humans have detailed information about. The question of whether life exists elsewhere in the Universe is open. There have been a number of claims of life elsewhere in the Universe. None of these have been confirmed so far. The best evidence of life outside of Earth is are nucleic acids that have been found in certain types of meteorites.
## Definitions
One explanation of life is called the cell theory. The cell theory has three basic points: all living things are made up of cells. The cell is the smallest living thing that can do all the things needed for life. All cells must come from pre-existing cells.
Something is often said to be alive if it:
- grows,
- takes in food, uses the food for energy, and passes waste products (see metabolism),
- moves: it must either move itself, or have movement inside itself,
- reproduces, either sexually (with another living thing) or asexually, by creating copies of itself,
- reacts to its surroundings,
- functions
However, not all living things fit every point on this list.
- Mules cannot reproduce, and neither can worker ants.
- Viruses and spores are not actively alive (metabolising) until the conditions are right.
They do, however, fit the biochemical definitions: they are made of the same kind of chemicals.
The thermodynamic definition of life is any system which can keep its entropy levels below maximum (usually through adaptation and mutations).
### A modern approach
A modern definition was given by Humberto Maturana and Francisco Varela in 1980, to which they gave the name _autopoiesis_:
1. The production of their own components
1. The correct assembly of these components
1. Continuous repair and maintenance of their own existence.
Roth commented that "In short, organisms are self-reproducing and self-maintaining, or 'autopoietic', systems". This approach makes use of molecular biology ideas and systems science ideas.
### Chemistry
Life on Earth is made from organic compounds—molecules that contain carbon. Four types of long-chain molecules (macromolecules) are important: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
- Simple carbohydrates (sugars) are used for energy, or as a building block. Complex carbohydrates, like starch and cellulose, can keep energy for a long time. They are also used to make a strong structure, like a plant stem.
- Lipids can be insulation to keep a living thing warm, such as fat on a penguin, or to stop water from passing in or out, such as waterproof feathers. Two layers of phospholid (a kind of lipid) make up all cell membranes. Some kinds of lipids are hormones, which send messages from one cell to another.
- Proteins, long chains of amino acids, have many purposes. They fold into complex shapes because their amino acids interact. Proteins are involved in many chemical reactions, to make them go faster.
- Nucleic acids, including DNA and RNA, are long chains of nucleotides. There are only four kinds of nucleotides in each chain, but they are the instructions for life, like a language. Each three nucleotides tell the cell to make one amino acid. One part of a nucleic acid is the code for one protein molecule.
Almost all living things need the chemical elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus, to build these macromolecules. Living things also need small amounts of other elements, called _trace elements_. Water is a very important part of all living things. For example, humans are about two-thirds water. Water is a solvent that lets molecules mix and react with other molecules.
### Energy sources
All living things need energy to survive, move, grow, and reproduce. Some can get energy from the environment without help from other living things: these are called producers, or autotrophs. Plants, algae, and some bacteria, a group of producers called photoautotrophs, use the sun's light for energy. When producers use light to make and store organic compounds, this is called photosynthesis. Some other producers, called chemoautotrophs, get energy from chemicals that come out of the ocean floor in hydrothermal vents. Other living things get their energy from organic compounds: these are called consumers, or heterotrophs. Animals, fungi, most bacteria, and most protists are consumers. Consumers can eat other living things or dead material.
Both producers and consumers need to break down organic compounds to free energy. The best way to do this is aerobic respiration, which frees the most energy, but living things can only do aerobic respiration if they have oxygen (O2). They can also break down these compounds without oxygen, using anaerobic respiration or fermentation.
## Cells
All living things have cells. Every cell has a cell membrane on the outside, and a jelly-like material that fills the inside, called cytoplasm. The membrane is important because it separates the chemicals inside and outside. Some molecules can pass through the membrane, but others cannot. Living cells have genes, made of DNA. Genes say to the cell what to do, like a language. One DNA molecule, with many genes, is called a chromosome. Cells can copy themselves to make two new cells.
There are two main kinds of cells: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. Prokaryotic cells have only a few parts. Their DNA is the shape of a circle, inside the cytoplasm, and they have no membranes inside the cell. Eukaryotic cells are more complex, and they have a cell nucleus. The DNA is inside the nucleus, and a membrane is around the nucleus. Eukaryotic cells also have other parts, called organelles. Some of these other organelles also have membranes.
## Types of life
Taxonomy is how lifeforms are put into groups. The smaller groups are more closely related, but the larger classes are more distantly related. The levels, or ranks, of taxonomy are domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species. There are many ideas for the meaning of species. One idea, called the biological species concept, is as follows. A species is a group of living things that can mate with each other, and whose children can make their own children.
Taxonomy aims to group together living things with a common ancestor. This can now be done by comparing their DNA. Originally, it was done by comparing their anatomy.
The three domains of life are Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. Bacteria and archaea are prokaryotic and have only one cell. Bacteria range in size from 0.15 cubic micrometres (_Mycoplasma_) to 200,000,000 cubic micrometres (_Thiomargarita namibiensis_). Bacteria have shapes which are useful in classification, such as round, long and thin, and spiral. Some bacteria cause diseases. Bacteria in our intestines are part of our gut flora. They break down some of our food. Both bacteria and archaea may live where larger forms of life cannot. Bacteria have a molecule called peptidoglycan in their cell wall, but archaea do not. Archaea have a molecule called isoprene in their cell membrane, but bacteria do not.
Eukarya are living things with eukaryotic cells, and they can have one cell or many cells. Most eukaryotes use sexual reproduction to make new copies of themselves. In sexual reproduction, two sex cells, one from each parent, join to make a new living thing.
Plants are eukaryotes that use the Sun's light for energy. They include algae, which live in water, and land plants. All land plants have two forms during their life cycle, called alternation of generations. One form is diploid, where the cells have two copies of their chromosomes, and the other form is haploid, where the cells have one copy of their chromosomes. In land plants, both diploid and haploid forms have many cells. Two kinds of land plants are vascular plants and bryophytes. Vascular plants have long tissues that stretch from end to end of the plant. These tissues carry water and food. Most plants have roots and leaves.
Animals are eukaryotes with many cells, which have no rigid cell walls. All animals are consumers: they survive by eating other organic material. Almost all animals have neurons, a signalling system. They usually have muscles, which make the body move. Many animals have a head and legs. Most animals are either male or female. They need a mate of the opposite sex to make offspring. Sex cells from the male and female can meet inside or outside the body.
Fungi are eukaryotes which may have one cell, like yeasts, or many cells, like mushrooms. They are saprophytes. Fungi break down living or dead material, so they are decomposers. Only fungi, and a few bacteria, can break down lignin and cellulose, two parts of wood. Some fungi are mycorrhiza. They live under ground and give nutrients to plants, like nitrogen and phosphorus. Eukaryotes that are not plants, animals, or fungi are called protists. Most protists live in water.
## Evolution
Over thousands or millions of years, living things can change, through the process of evolution. One kind of evolution is when a species changes over time, such as giraffes growing longer necks. Most of the time, the species becomes better suited to its environment, a process called adaptation. Evolution can also cause one group of living things to split into two groups. This is called speciation if it makes a new species. An example is mockingbirds on the Galapagos Islands—one species of mockingbird lives on each island, but all the species split from a shared ancestor species. Groups that are bigger than species can also split from a shared ancestor—for example, reptiles and mammals. A group of living things and their shared ancestor is called a clade.
Living things can evolve to be quite different from their ancestors. As a result, parts of the body can also change. The same bone structure became the hands of humans, the hooves of horses, and the wings of birds. Different body parts that evolved from the same thing are called homologous.
Extinction is when all members of a species die. About 99.9% of all species that have ever lived are extinct. Extinction can happen at any time, but it is more common in certain time periods called extinction events. The most recent was 65 million years ago, when the dinosaurs went extinct.
### Origin of life
By comparing fossils and DNA, we know that all life on Earth today had a shared ancestor, called the last universal common ancestor (LUCA). Other living things may have been alive at the same time as the LUCA, but they died out. A study from 2018 suggests that the LUCA is about 4.5 billion (4,500,000,000) years old, nearly as old as the Earth. The oldest fossil evidence of life is about 3.5 billion years old.
How did non-living material become alive? This is a difficult question. The first step must have been the creation of organic compounds. In 1953, the Miller–Urey experiment made inorganic compounds into organic compounds, such as amino acids, using heat and energy.
Life needs a source of energy for chemical reactions. On the early Earth, the atmosphere did not have oxygen. Oxidation using the Krebs cycle, which is common today, was not possible. The Krebs cycle may have acted backwards, doing reduction instead of oxidation, and the cycle may have made larger molecules. To make life, molecules needed to make copies of themselves. DNA and RNA make copies of themselves, but only if there is a catalyst—a compound which speeds up the chemical reaction. One guess is that RNA itself served as a catalyst. At some time, the molecules were surrounded by membranes, which made cells.
## Related pages
- Artificial life
- Biology
- Birth
- Death
- Earliest known life forms
- Evolution
- Tree of life | high | false | false |
426 | Law | **Law** is a set of rules decided by a particular [place or authority](798) meant for the purpose of keeping the [peace](648) and [security](88699) of [society](689).
[Court](7636)s or [police](642) may enforce this system of rules and [punish](31012) people who break the laws, such as by paying a [fine](283), or other [penalty](31012) including [jail](1932). In ancient societies, laws were written by [leader](3616)s, to set out rules on how people can live, work and do business with each other. In most countries today, laws are written and voted on by groups of politicians in a [legislature](457), such as a [parliament](4075) or congress, elected (chosen) by the governed peoples. Countries today have a [constitution](173) for the overall framework of society and make further laws as needed for matters of detail. Members of society generally have enough freedom within all the _legal_ things they can choose to do. An activity is _illegal_ if it breaks a law or does not follow the laws.
A [legal code](69942) is a written code of laws that are enforced. This may deal with things like [police](642), [court](7636)s, or punishments. A [lawyer](19345), jurist or attorney is a professional who studies and argues the rules of law. In the United States, there are two kinds of attorneys - "transactional" attorneys who write contracts and "litigators" who go to [court](7636). In the United Kingdom, these professionals are called solicitors and [barristers](199690) respectively.
The _[Rule of Law](40626)_ is the law which says that government can only legally use its power in a way the government and the people agree on. It limits the powers a [government](312) has, as agreed in a country's [constitution](173). The _Rule of Law_ prevents dictatorship and protects the rights of the people. When leaders enforce the legal code honestly, even on themselves and their friends, this is an example of the rule of law being followed. "The rule of law", wrote the ancient Greek philosopher [Aristotle](4494) in 350 BC, "is better than the rule of any individual."
[Culture](3476) is usually a major source of the principles behind many laws, and people also tend to trust the ideas based on [family](3284) and social habits. In many countries throughout history, [religion](653) and religious books like the [Vedas](21064), [Bible](2866) or the Koran have been a major source of law.
## Types of law
- **Medical law** is the body of **laws** concerning the rights and responsibilities of **medical** professionals and their patients. The main areas of focus for **medical law** include confidentiality, [negligence](69932) and other [tort](30407)<nowiki/>s related to **medical** treatment (especially **medical** malpractice), and criminal **law** and **ethics**.
- Physician-Patient Privilege protects the patient's private conversations with a medical physician (doctor), this also extends to their personal information (like their contact details) shared with medical personnel.
- [Property](3336) law states the rights and obligations that a person has when they buy, sell, or rent homes and land (called [real property](82567) or [realty](82567)), and objects (called [personal property](46949)).
- [Intellectual property](351637) law involves the rights people have over things they create, such as art, music, and [literature](3887). This is called [copyright](1586). It also protects inventions that people make, by a kind of law called [patent](19139). It also covers the rights people have to the names of a company or a distinctive mark or logo. This is called [trademark](838).
- Trust law (business Law) sets out the rules for money that is put into an [investment](48143), such as [pension funds](46647) that people save up for their retirement. It involves many different types of law, including administrative and property law.
- Tort law helps people to make claims for [compensation](479) (repayment) when someone hurts them or hurts their property.
- [Criminal law](151) is used by the government to prevent people from breaking laws, and punish people who do break them.
- [Constitutional law](721448) deals with the important rights of the government, and its relationship with the people. It mainly involves the interpretation of a [constitution](173), including things like the [Separation of powers](67174) of the different branches of government.
- A [court order](522440) is an official proclamation by a judge that defines and authorizes the carrying out of certain steps for one or more parties to a case.
- Administrative law is used by ordinary citizens who want to challenge decisions made by governments. It also involves things like regulations, and the operation of the [administrative agencies](87702).
- [International law](28041) is used to set out rules on how countries can act in areas such as trade, the [environment](13637), or military action. The [Geneva Conventions](28039) on the conduct of war and the [Roerich Pact](259745) are examples of international law.
- [Custom](5110) and tradition are practices that are widely adopted and agreed upon in a society, thought often not in a written form. Custom and tradition can be enforced in courts and are sometimes considered as part of the legal reasoning in matters decided in courts. In some societies and cultures all law is or was custom and tradition. This is increasingly rare although there are some parts of the world where custom tradition are still binding or even the predominant form of law, for example tribal lands or failed states.
## Civil law and common law
**[Civil law](207591)** is the legal system used in most countries around the world today. Civil law is based on legislation that is found in [constitution](173)s or statutes passed by government. The secondary part of civil law is the legal approaches that are part of custom. In civil law governments, judges do not generally have much power, and most of the laws and [legal precedent](138930) are created by [Members of Parliament](989685).
**Common law** is based on the decisions made by judges in past court cases. It comes from England and it became part of almost every country that once belonged to the British Empire, except [Malta](4100), [Scotland](3049), the U.S. state of [Louisiana](6207), and the Canadian province of [Quebec](649). It is also the predominant form of law in the United States, where many laws called statutes are written by [Congress](51928), but many more legal rules exist from the decisions of the courts. Common law had its beginnings in the [Middle Ages](6593), when [King John](11055) was forced by his barons to sign a document called [Magna Carta](34729).
## Religious law
Religious law is law based on religious beliefs or books. Examples include the [Jewish](219593) [Halakha](71244), [Islam](219592)ic [Sharia](60077), and [Christian](219595) [Canon law](57645).
Until the 1700s, Sharia law was the main legal system throughout the Muslim world. In some Muslim countries such as [Saudi Arabia](6350) and [Iran](3772), the whole legal systems still base their law on Sharia law. Islamic law is often criticised because it has harsh penalties for crimes. A serious criticism is the judgement of the [European Court](32473) that "sharia is incompatible with the fundamental principles of [democracy](3195)".
The [Turkish](2860) Refah Party's sharia-based "plurality of legal systems, grounded on religion" was ruled to contravene the [European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms](32472). The Court decided Refah's plan would "do away with the State's role as the guarantor of individual rights and freedoms" and "infringe the principle of non-discrimination between individuals as regards their enjoyment of public freedoms, which is one of the fundamental principles of democracy".
## History of law
The history of law is closely connected to the development of human [civilization](16146)s. [Ancient Egypt](15034)ian law developed in 3000 BC. In 1760 BC King [Hammurabi](57982), took ancient [Babylon](33724)ian law and organized it, and had it chiselled in stone for the public to see in the marketplace. These laws became known as the [Code of Hammurabi](58116).
The [Torah](10118) from the [Old Testament](11272) is an old body of law. It was written around 1280 BC. It has moral rules such as the [Ten Commandments](845), which tell people what things are not permitted. Sometimes people try to change the law. For example, if prostitution is illegal, they try to make it legal.
## Legislature
In democracies, the people in a country usually choose people called politicians to represent them in a legislature. Examples of legislatures include the Houses of Parliament in London, the [Congress](51928) in Washington, D.C., the [Bundestag](42860) in Berlin, the [Duma](346101) in Moscow and the Assemblée nationale in Paris. Many legislatures have two chambers or houses, a 'lower house' and an 'upper house'. To pass legislation, a majority of Members of Parliament must vote for a bill in each house. The legislature is the branch of government that writes laws, and votes on whether they will be approved.
## Judiciary
The [judiciary](59311) is a group of [judge](7952)s who resolve people's disputes and determine whether people who are charged with crimes are [guilty](50768). In some places the judge does not find guilt or innocence but instead directs a jury, how to interpret facts from a legal perspective, but the jury determines the facts based on evidence presented to them and finds the guilt or innocence of the charged person. Most countries of common law and civil law systems have a system of [appeals courts](521534), up to a supreme authority such as the [Supreme Court](98874). The highest courts usually have the power to remove laws that are [unconstitutional](521229) (which go against the constitution).
## Executive (government) and Head of State
The executive is the governing center of political authority. In most democratic countries, the executive is elected from people who are in the legislature. This group of elected people is called the cabinet. There may be a [President](4044) which exists separately from the legislature.
The executive suggests new laws and deals with other countries. The executive usually controls the [military](3516), the [police](642), and the [bureaucracy](78689). The executive selects ministers, or secretaries of state to control departments such as the health department or the department of justice.
In many jurisdictions the Head of State takes a largely ceremonial role. This is the case in many Commonwealth nations where the Head of State, usually a Governor almost exclusively acts "on the advice" of the head of the Executive (e.g. the Prime Minister, First Minister or Premier). The primary legal role of the Head of State in these jurisdictions is to act as a check or balance against the Executive, as the Head of State has the rarely exercised power to dissolve the legislature, call elections and dismiss ministers.
## Other parts of the legal system
The **[police](642)** enforce the criminal laws by arresting people suspected of breaking the law. **[Bureaucrats](78689)** are the government workers and government organizations that do work for the government. Bureaucrats work within a system of rules, and they make their decisions in writing.
**[Lawyer](19345)s** are people who have learned about laws. Lawyers give people advice about their legal rights and duties and represent people in [court](7636). To become a lawyer, a person has to complete a two- or three-year [university](884) program at a law school and pass an entrance examination. Lawyers work in law firms, for the government, for companies, or by themselves.
**Civil society** is the people and groups that are not part of government that try to protect people against [human rights](13925) abuses and try to protect [freedom of speech](3711) and other individual rights. Organizations that are part of civil society include political parties, debating clubs, [trade union](51913)s, [human rights organizations](13925), [newspaper](7665)s and charitie<nowiki/>s.
"[Corporation](46929)s are among the organizations that use the legal system to further their goals. Like the others, they use means such as campaign donations and [advertising](3544) to persuade people that they are right. Corporations also engage in [commerce](50639) and make new things such as [automobile](214943)s, vaporisers/e-cigarettes, and Unmanned aerial vehicles (i.e. "drones") that the old laws are not well equipped to deal with. Corporations also makes use of a set of rules and regulations to ensure their employees remain loyal to them (usually presented in a legal contract), and that any disobedience towards these rules are considered uncivilized and therefore given grounds for immediate dismissal.
## Related pages
- [Constitution](173)
- [Death penalty](6659)
- [Ethics](226)
- [Legal code](69942)
- Legal rights
- [Parliament](4075)
- [Physical law](63241)
- [Political economy](50952)
## Further reading
- H.L.A. Hart, _The Concept of Law_, (Penelope A. Bullock & Joseph Raz eds. 2nd ed. 1994) (1961).
- Sandro Nielsen: _The Bilingual LSP Dictionary. Principles and Practice for Legal Language_
- . Benjamins 1994.
- _A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy_. edited by Robert E. Goodin and Philip Pettit. .
- Johnson, Alan (1995). _The Blackwell Dictionary of Sociology_. Blackwells publishers. .
- _Handbook of Political Institutions_. edited by R. A. W. Rhodes, Sarah A. Binder and Bert A. Rockman. Oxford University Press.
- _An Introduction to IP Law._ edited by John Watts. Oxford University Press. Available at [Patent Professionals LLC](http://www.patent-professionals.com)
## Other websites
- [Law](http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Law) -Citizendium | **Law** is a set of rules decided by a particular place or authority meant for the purpose of keeping the peace and security of society.
Courts or police may enforce this system of rules and punish people who break the laws, such as by paying a fine, or other penalty including jail. In ancient societies, laws were written by leaders, to set out rules on how people can live, work and do business with each other. In most countries today, laws are written and voted on by groups of politicians in a legislature, such as a parliament or congress, elected (chosen) by the governed peoples. Countries today have a constitution for the overall framework of society and make further laws as needed for matters of detail. Members of society generally have enough freedom within all the _legal_ things they can choose to do. An activity is _illegal_ if it breaks a law or does not follow the laws.
A legal code is a written code of laws that are enforced. This may deal with things like police, courts, or punishments. A lawyer, jurist or attorney is a professional who studies and argues the rules of law. In the United States, there are two kinds of attorneys - "transactional" attorneys who write contracts and "litigators" who go to court. In the United Kingdom, these professionals are called solicitors and barristers respectively.
The _Rule of Law_ is the law which says that government can only legally use its power in a way the government and the people agree on. It limits the powers a government has, as agreed in a country's constitution. The _Rule of Law_ prevents dictatorship and protects the rights of the people. When leaders enforce the legal code honestly, even on themselves and their friends, this is an example of the rule of law being followed. "The rule of law", wrote the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle in 350 BC, "is better than the rule of any individual."
Culture is usually a major source of the principles behind many laws, and people also tend to trust the ideas based on family and social habits. In many countries throughout history, religion and religious books like the Vedas, Bible or the Koran have been a major source of law.
## Types of law
- **Medical law** is the body of **laws** concerning the rights and responsibilities of **medical** professionals and their patients. The main areas of focus for **medical law** include confidentiality, negligence and other tort<nowiki/>s related to **medical** treatment (especially **medical** malpractice), and criminal **law** and **ethics**.
- Physician-Patient Privilege protects the patient's private conversations with a medical physician (doctor), this also extends to their personal information (like their contact details) shared with medical personnel.
- Property law states the rights and obligations that a person has when they buy, sell, or rent homes and land (called real property or realty), and objects (called personal property).
- Intellectual property law involves the rights people have over things they create, such as art, music, and literature. This is called copyright. It also protects inventions that people make, by a kind of law called patent. It also covers the rights people have to the names of a company or a distinctive mark or logo. This is called trademark.
- Trust law (business Law) sets out the rules for money that is put into an investment, such as pension funds that people save up for their retirement. It involves many different types of law, including administrative and property law.
- Tort law helps people to make claims for compensation (repayment) when someone hurts them or hurts their property.
- Criminal law is used by the government to prevent people from breaking laws, and punish people who do break them.
- Constitutional law deals with the important rights of the government, and its relationship with the people. It mainly involves the interpretation of a constitution, including things like the Separation of powers of the different branches of government.
- A court order is an official proclamation by a judge that defines and authorizes the carrying out of certain steps for one or more parties to a case.
- Administrative law is used by ordinary citizens who want to challenge decisions made by governments. It also involves things like regulations, and the operation of the administrative agencies.
- International law is used to set out rules on how countries can act in areas such as trade, the environment, or military action. The Geneva Conventions on the conduct of war and the Roerich Pact are examples of international law.
- Custom and tradition are practices that are widely adopted and agreed upon in a society, thought often not in a written form. Custom and tradition can be enforced in courts and are sometimes considered as part of the legal reasoning in matters decided in courts. In some societies and cultures all law is or was custom and tradition. This is increasingly rare although there are some parts of the world where custom tradition are still binding or even the predominant form of law, for example tribal lands or failed states.
## Civil law and common law
**Civil law** is the legal system used in most countries around the world today. Civil law is based on legislation that is found in constitutions or statutes passed by government. The secondary part of civil law is the legal approaches that are part of custom. In civil law governments, judges do not generally have much power, and most of the laws and legal precedent are created by Members of Parliament.
**Common law** is based on the decisions made by judges in past court cases. It comes from England and it became part of almost every country that once belonged to the British Empire, except Malta, Scotland, the U.S. state of Louisiana, and the Canadian province of Quebec. It is also the predominant form of law in the United States, where many laws called statutes are written by Congress, but many more legal rules exist from the decisions of the courts. Common law had its beginnings in the Middle Ages, when King John was forced by his barons to sign a document called Magna Carta.
## Religious law
Religious law is law based on religious beliefs or books. Examples include the Jewish Halakha, Islamic Sharia, and Christian Canon law.
Until the 1700s, Sharia law was the main legal system throughout the Muslim world. In some Muslim countries such as Saudi Arabia and Iran, the whole legal systems still base their law on Sharia law. Islamic law is often criticised because it has harsh penalties for crimes. A serious criticism is the judgement of the European Court that "sharia is incompatible with the fundamental principles of democracy".
The Turkish Refah Party's sharia-based "plurality of legal systems, grounded on religion" was ruled to contravene the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. The Court decided Refah's plan would "do away with the State's role as the guarantor of individual rights and freedoms" and "infringe the principle of non-discrimination between individuals as regards their enjoyment of public freedoms, which is one of the fundamental principles of democracy".
## History of law
The history of law is closely connected to the development of human civilizations. Ancient Egyptian law developed in 3000 BC. In 1760 BC King Hammurabi, took ancient Babylonian law and organized it, and had it chiselled in stone for the public to see in the marketplace. These laws became known as the Code of Hammurabi.
The Torah from the Old Testament is an old body of law. It was written around 1280 BC. It has moral rules such as the Ten Commandments, which tell people what things are not permitted. Sometimes people try to change the law. For example, if prostitution is illegal, they try to make it legal.
## Legislature
In democracies, the people in a country usually choose people called politicians to represent them in a legislature. Examples of legislatures include the Houses of Parliament in London, the Congress in Washington, D.C., the Bundestag in Berlin, the Duma in Moscow and the Assemblée nationale in Paris. Many legislatures have two chambers or houses, a 'lower house' and an 'upper house'. To pass legislation, a majority of Members of Parliament must vote for a bill in each house. The legislature is the branch of government that writes laws, and votes on whether they will be approved.
## Judiciary
The judiciary is a group of judges who resolve people's disputes and determine whether people who are charged with crimes are guilty. In some places the judge does not find guilt or innocence but instead directs a jury, how to interpret facts from a legal perspective, but the jury determines the facts based on evidence presented to them and finds the guilt or innocence of the charged person. Most countries of common law and civil law systems have a system of appeals courts, up to a supreme authority such as the Supreme Court. The highest courts usually have the power to remove laws that are unconstitutional (which go against the constitution).
## Executive (government) and Head of State
The executive is the governing center of political authority. In most democratic countries, the executive is elected from people who are in the legislature. This group of elected people is called the cabinet. There may be a President which exists separately from the legislature.
The executive suggests new laws and deals with other countries. The executive usually controls the military, the police, and the bureaucracy. The executive selects ministers, or secretaries of state to control departments such as the health department or the department of justice.
In many jurisdictions the Head of State takes a largely ceremonial role. This is the case in many Commonwealth nations where the Head of State, usually a Governor almost exclusively acts "on the advice" of the head of the Executive (e.g. the Prime Minister, First Minister or Premier). The primary legal role of the Head of State in these jurisdictions is to act as a check or balance against the Executive, as the Head of State has the rarely exercised power to dissolve the legislature, call elections and dismiss ministers.
## Other parts of the legal system
The **police** enforce the criminal laws by arresting people suspected of breaking the law. **Bureaucrats** are the government workers and government organizations that do work for the government. Bureaucrats work within a system of rules, and they make their decisions in writing.
**Lawyers** are people who have learned about laws. Lawyers give people advice about their legal rights and duties and represent people in court. To become a lawyer, a person has to complete a two- or three-year university program at a law school and pass an entrance examination. Lawyers work in law firms, for the government, for companies, or by themselves.
**Civil society** is the people and groups that are not part of government that try to protect people against human rights abuses and try to protect freedom of speech and other individual rights. Organizations that are part of civil society include political parties, debating clubs, trade unions, human rights organizations, newspapers and charitie<nowiki/>s.
"Corporations are among the organizations that use the legal system to further their goals. Like the others, they use means such as campaign donations and advertising to persuade people that they are right. Corporations also engage in commerce and make new things such as automobiles, vaporisers/e-cigarettes, and Unmanned aerial vehicles (i.e. "drones") that the old laws are not well equipped to deal with. Corporations also makes use of a set of rules and regulations to ensure their employees remain loyal to them (usually presented in a legal contract), and that any disobedience towards these rules are considered uncivilized and therefore given grounds for immediate dismissal.
## Related pages
- Constitution
- Death penalty
- Ethics
- Legal code
- Legal rights
- Parliament
- Physical law
- Political economy
## Further reading
- H.L.A. Hart, _The Concept of Law_, (Penelope A. Bullock & Joseph Raz eds. 2nd ed. 1994) (1961).
- Sandro Nielsen: _The Bilingual LSP Dictionary. Principles and Practice for Legal Language_
- . Benjamins 1994.
- _A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy_. edited by Robert E. Goodin and Philip Pettit. .
- Johnson, Alan (1995). _The Blackwell Dictionary of Sociology_. Blackwells publishers. .
- _Handbook of Political Institutions_. edited by R. A. W. Rhodes, Sarah A. Binder and Bert A. Rockman. Oxford University Press.
- _An Introduction to IP Law._ edited by John Watts. Oxford University Press. Available at Patent Professionals LLC
## Other websites
- Law -Citizendium | medium | false | false |
428 | L. L. Zamenhof | **Ludwik Lejzer Zamenhof** (; , ; – ), credited as **L. L. Zamenhof** and sometimes as the pseudonymous **Dr. Esperanto**, was an [eye](3743) doctor, [linguist](20194) (who creates a language), and scholar who created the [international language](480229) [Esperanto](13331).
## Biography
Zamenhof was born in 1859 in the town of [Białystok](47639), [Poland](3045). At the time, Poland was a part of the Russian Empire. Bialystok contained three major groups: Poles, Belorussians, and Yiddish-speaking [Jew](39429)s. Zamenhof thought that one common language would join these groups and stop fights between them.
His [first language](497) was said to be [Polish](18339). His parents spoke [Russian](2991) and [Yiddish](943) at home. His father was a [German](3346) teacher, so Zamenhof learned that language from an early age and spoke the language fluently. Later he learned [French](3597), [Latin](6592), [Greek](4606), [Hebrew](14175) and [English](2843). He also had an interest in [Italian](8249), [Spanish](6432) and [Lithuanian](45851).
Zamenhof decided that the international language must have a simple [grammar](299) and be easier to learn than [Volapük](887), an earlier international language. He attempted to create the international language with a grammar that was rich, and complex. The basics of Esperanto were published in 1887. He translated the [Hebrew Bible](80262) into Esperanto.
His grandson, [Louis-Christophe Zaleski-Zamenhof](716920), was an engineer.
He was 14 times nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize between [1907](8724) and [1917](11700).
### Original works
- _Unua Libro_, 1887 (_First Book_)
- _Dua Libro_, 1888 (_Second Book_)
- [_Hilelismo – propono pri solvo de la hebrea demando_](http://www.esperanto.mv.ru/Hilelismo/index_e.html) , 1901 (_Hillelism: A Project in Response to the Jewish Question_)
- [_Esenco kaj estonteco de la ideo de lingvo internacia_](http://joaojosesantos.net/html/pdf/zamenhofo_esenco_kaj_estonteco_de_la_lingvo_internacia.pdf) , 1903 (_Essence and Future of the Idea of an International Language_)
- [_Fundamenta Krestomatio de la Lingvo Esperanto_](https://www.gutenberg.org/files/8224/8224-h/8224-h.htm) , 1903 (_Basic Anthology of the Esperanto Language_)
- _Fundamento de Esperanto_, 1905 (_Foundation of Esperanto_)
- Declaration of Boulogne, 1905
- [_Homaranismo_](http://homarano.narod.ru/Windows/homar_e.htm) , 1913 (_Humanitism_)
#### Periodicals
- _La Esperantisto_, 1889–1895 (_The Esperantist_)
- _Lingvo Internacia_, 1895–1914 (_International Language_)
- _La Revuo_, 1906–1914 (_The Review_)
#### Poems
- "Al la fratoj" ("To the Brothers")
- "Ho, mia kor'" ("Oh, My Heart")
- "La Espero" ("The Hope")
- "La vojo" ("The Way")
- "Mia penso" ("My Thought")
### Translations
- [_Hamleto, Reĝido de Danujo_](http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/37279) , 1894 (_[Hamlet, Prince of Denmark](11546)_, by [William Shakespeare](354103))
- [_La batalo de l' vivo_](http://esperanto.davidgsimpson.com/inko/100-3.pdf) (_The Battle of Life_, by [Charles Dickens](5137))
- _La revizoro_, 1907 (_The Government Inspector_, by [Nikolai Gogol](70988))
- _La Predikanto_, 1907 (translation of [Ecclesiastes](118083))
- _La Psalmaro_, 1908 (translation of the book of Psalms)
- [_La rabistoj_](http://steloj.de/esperanto/rabistoj/index.html) , 1908 (_The Robbers_, by [Friedrich Schiller](32998))
- [_Ifigenio en Taŭrido_](http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/22592) , 1908 (_Iphigenia in Tauris_, by [Johann Wolfgang von Goethe](5125))
- _La Rabeno de Baĥaraĥ_, 1909 ("The Rabbi of Bacharach", by [Heinrich Heine](17878))
- _La Gimnazio_, 1909 ("The High School", by Scholem Aleichem)
- [_Marta_](http://www.ipernity.com/doc/esperanto-muzeo-svitavy/40592976) , 1910 (_Marta_, by Eliza Orzeszkowa)
- _Genezo_, 1911 (translation of the [Book of Genesis](11278))
- _Eliro_, 1912 (translation of the Book of Exodus)
- _Levidoj_, 1912 (translation of the [Book of Leviticus](102238))
- _Nombroj_, 1914 (translation of the [Book of Numbers](84211))
- _Readmono_, 1914 (translation of the Book of Deuteronomy)
- _Malnova Testamento_ (parts of the [Old Testament](11272))
## Infobox (writer)
- **embed**: yes
- **pseudonym**: Dr. Esperanto
## Infobox (person)
- **name**: L. L. Zamenhof
- **image**: Zamenhof portreto.jpg
- **caption**: Zamenhof,
- **birth name**: Leyzer Zamengov
- **birth place**: Belostok, Grodno Governorate, Russian Empire
(now Białystok, Poland)
- **death date**: (aged )
- **death place**: Warsaw, Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918), Kingdom of Poland
- **burial place**: Jewish Cemetery, Warsaw
- **occupation**: Ophthalmologist
- **known for**: Esperanto
- **children**: Adam Zamenhof, Adam, Zofia Zamenhof, Zofia, and Lidia Zamenhof, Lidia
- **awards**: Legion of Honour - Officer (1905)
- **signature**: Originala Verkaro-L L Zamenhof signature.svg | **Ludwik Lejzer Zamenhof** (; , ; – ), credited as **L. L. Zamenhof** and sometimes as the pseudonymous **Dr. Esperanto**, was an eye doctor, linguist (who creates a language), and scholar who created the international language Esperanto.
## Biography
Zamenhof was born in 1859 in the town of Białystok, Poland. At the time, Poland was a part of the Russian Empire. Bialystok contained three major groups: Poles, Belorussians, and Yiddish-speaking Jews. Zamenhof thought that one common language would join these groups and stop fights between them.
His first language was said to be Polish. His parents spoke Russian and Yiddish at home. His father was a German teacher, so Zamenhof learned that language from an early age and spoke the language fluently. Later he learned French, Latin, Greek, Hebrew and English. He also had an interest in Italian, Spanish and Lithuanian.
Zamenhof decided that the international language must have a simple grammar and be easier to learn than Volapük, an earlier international language. He attempted to create the international language with a grammar that was rich, and complex. The basics of Esperanto were published in 1887. He translated the Hebrew Bible into Esperanto.
His grandson, Louis-Christophe Zaleski-Zamenhof, was an engineer.
He was 14 times nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize between 1907 and 1917.
### Original works
- _Unua Libro_, 1887 (_First Book_)
- _Dua Libro_, 1888 (_Second Book_)
- _Hilelismo – propono pri solvo de la hebrea demando_ , 1901 (_Hillelism: A Project in Response to the Jewish Question_)
- _Esenco kaj estonteco de la ideo de lingvo internacia_ , 1903 (_Essence and Future of the Idea of an International Language_)
- _Fundamenta Krestomatio de la Lingvo Esperanto_ , 1903 (_Basic Anthology of the Esperanto Language_)
- _Fundamento de Esperanto_, 1905 (_Foundation of Esperanto_)
- Declaration of Boulogne, 1905
- _Homaranismo_ , 1913 (_Humanitism_)
#### Periodicals
- _La Esperantisto_, 1889–1895 (_The Esperantist_)
- _Lingvo Internacia_, 1895–1914 (_International Language_)
- _La Revuo_, 1906–1914 (_The Review_)
#### Poems
- "Al la fratoj" ("To the Brothers")
- "Ho, mia kor'" ("Oh, My Heart")
- "La Espero" ("The Hope")
- "La vojo" ("The Way")
- "Mia penso" ("My Thought")
### Translations
- _Hamleto, Reĝido de Danujo_ , 1894 (_Hamlet, Prince of Denmark_, by William Shakespeare)
- _La batalo de l' vivo_ (_The Battle of Life_, by Charles Dickens)
- _La revizoro_, 1907 (_The Government Inspector_, by Nikolai Gogol)
- _La Predikanto_, 1907 (translation of Ecclesiastes)
- _La Psalmaro_, 1908 (translation of the book of Psalms)
- _La rabistoj_ , 1908 (_The Robbers_, by Friedrich Schiller)
- _Ifigenio en Taŭrido_ , 1908 (_Iphigenia in Tauris_, by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe)
- _La Rabeno de Baĥaraĥ_, 1909 ("The Rabbi of Bacharach", by Heinrich Heine)
- _La Gimnazio_, 1909 ("The High School", by Scholem Aleichem)
- _Marta_ , 1910 (_Marta_, by Eliza Orzeszkowa)
- _Genezo_, 1911 (translation of the Book of Genesis)
- _Eliro_, 1912 (translation of the Book of Exodus)
- _Levidoj_, 1912 (translation of the Book of Leviticus)
- _Nombroj_, 1914 (translation of the Book of Numbers)
- _Readmono_, 1914 (translation of the Book of Deuteronomy)
- _Malnova Testamento_ (parts of the Old Testament)
## Infobox (writer)
- **embed**: yes
- **pseudonym**: Dr. Esperanto
## Infobox (person)
- **name**: L. L. Zamenhof
- **image**: Zamenhof portreto.jpg
- **caption**: Zamenhof,
- **birth name**: Leyzer Zamengov
- **birth place**: Belostok, Grodno Governorate, Russian Empire
(now Białystok, Poland)
- **death date**: (aged )
- **death place**: Warsaw, Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918), Kingdom of Poland
- **burial place**: Jewish Cemetery, Warsaw
- **occupation**: Ophthalmologist
- **known for**: Esperanto
- **children**: Adam Zamenhof, Adam, Zofia Zamenhof, Zofia, and Lidia Zamenhof, Lidia
- **awards**: Legion of Honour - Officer (1905)
- **signature**: Originala Verkaro-L L Zamenhof signature.svg | medium | false | false |
431 | Provinces and territories of Canada | [Canada](219589) is a [country](121) and [sovereign state](195252) in the northern area of [North America](557). It is made up of thirteen [administrative division](54087)s: ten [province](6617)s and three [territories](156768).
The different levels of [government](312) in Canada are based on the principles of a [federation](65165): the governments of each province and territory share power with the [federal government](256763). The territories' governments have a more limited set of powers than the federal government.
The provinces are in the south of Canada, near the [border](21682) with the [United States](219587). They go from the [Atlantic Ocean](1936) in the east to the [Pacific Ocean](1975) in the west. The territories are to the north, where fewer people live, close to the [Arctic Circle](21176) and [Arctic Ocean](1980).
Here is a list of the provinces and territories, and their standard [abbreviation](32)s, with their [capital](1968)s (the cities where their governments are based) and largest [cities](144). Canada's national capital, where the federal government meets, is [Ottawa](3838).
|bgcolor=#00000|Province name|bgcolor=#efefef|Abbreviation|bgcolor=#efefef|Capital city|bgcolor=#efefef|Largest city (if not the capital)|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|[Alberta](3658)|AB|[Edmonton](6169)|[Calgary](11008)|||||
|[British Columbia](3403)|BC|[Victoria](4702)|[Vancouver](8110)|||||
|[Manitoba](5013)|MB|[Winnipeg](14459)||||||
|[New Brunswick](16626)|NB|Fredericton|[Moncton](402347)|||||
|[Newfoundland and Labrador](17494)|NL|[St. John's](17496)||||||
|[Nova Scotia](11009)|NS|[Halifax](451124)||||||
|[Ontario](5012)|ON|[Toronto](2210)||||||
|[Prince Edward Island](23589)|PE|[Charlottetown](375463)||||||
|[Quebec](649)|QC|[Quebec City](16622)|[Montreal](474)|||||
|[Saskatchewan](5017)|SK|[Regina](65081)|[Saskatoon](3930)|||||
|[Yukon](16986)|YT|[Whitehorse](426058)||||||
|[Nunavut](8112)|NU|[Iqaluit](21384)||||||
|[Northwest Territories](16264)|NT|Yellowknife|||||| | Canada is a country and sovereign state in the northern area of North America. It is made up of thirteen administrative divisions: ten provinces and three territories.
The different levels of government in Canada are based on the principles of a federation: the governments of each province and territory share power with the federal government. The territories' governments have a more limited set of powers than the federal government.
The provinces are in the south of Canada, near the border with the United States. They go from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west. The territories are to the north, where fewer people live, close to the Arctic Circle and Arctic Ocean.
Here is a list of the provinces and territories, and their standard abbreviations, with their capitals (the cities where their governments are based) and largest cities. Canada's national capital, where the federal government meets, is Ottawa.
|bgcolor=#00000|Province name|bgcolor=#efefef|Abbreviation|bgcolor=#efefef|Capital city|bgcolor=#efefef|Largest city (if not the capital)|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|Alberta|AB|Edmonton|Calgary|||||
|British Columbia|BC|Victoria|Vancouver|||||
|Manitoba|MB|Winnipeg||||||
|New Brunswick|NB|Fredericton|Moncton|||||
|Newfoundland and Labrador|NL|St. John's||||||
|Nova Scotia|NS|Halifax||||||
|Ontario|ON|Toronto||||||
|Prince Edward Island|PE|Charlottetown||||||
|Quebec|QC|Quebec City|Montreal|||||
|Saskatchewan|SK|Regina|Saskatoon|||||
|Yukon|YT|Whitehorse||||||
|Nunavut|NU|Iqaluit||||||
|Northwest Territories|NT|Yellowknife|||||| | medium | false | false |
432 | Las Vegas | **Las Vegas** is a [city](144) in the [American](219587) [state](342544) of [Nevada](11442). There were 641,903 people living in the city in 2020, and more than 2,000,000 people living in the [metropolitan area](659260). It is the largest city in Nevada. Las Vegas is also the [county seat](33296) of [Clark County](659260).
Las Vegas is famous for its [casino](333023)s and [resort](897844) hotels. It is one of the world's most popular places for [tourism](9185).
## Politics
Las Vegas leans to the left. Three of the four congressional districts in Nevada include parts of Las Vegas, and all three congresspeople representing those districts are Democrats from Las Vegas.
## History
Native Americans were the first to reside in the area, specifically the Paiute tribe. It was first called _Las Vegas_ (which means _The [Meadow](128899)s_ in the [Spanish language](6432)) by the Spanish. The city is known for its dry weather, as is the rest of southern [Nevada](11442). It is surrounded by [desert](14509).
The US Army built Fort Baker there in 1864. Las Vegas has natural [springs](42949), where people used to stop for [water](939) when they were going to [Los Angeles](3015) or other places in [California](3009).
In 1905, 110 acres owned by William A. Clark, on which he built a railroad to Southern [California](3009) were [auction](4853)ed and Las Vegas was founded as a railroad [town](5937). Las Vegas officially became a city in 1911.
The Hispanic population in Las Vegas is growing and has rapidly increased. Most Latino Las Vegas residents are of Mexican, Cuban and Salvadoran descent. Las Vegas also has a small Puerto Rican, Belizean, Guatemalan, Spaniard, Peruvian, Colombian, Honduran, Nicaraguan and Argentine population. The most common European ancestries in Las Vegas are German, Irish, Italian, Polish, French, Scottish, Russian, Swedish, Norwegian, Dutch and Welsh. Filipino, Korean, Vietnamese, Japanese, Indian and Chinese are the most common Asian ancestries.
## People
There is a Mexican, African-American, Chinese, Greek, German, Korean, Japanese, Armenian, Arab, Italian, Jewish, Iranian, Croatian, Polish, [Filipino](22322), Indian, [Ethiopian](10484) and Chilean community in Las Vegas.
Las Vegas has a growing Hispanic population. Many Hispanics in Las Vegas are of Mexican, Cuban and Salvadoran ancestry.
Most of the foreign-born population were born in [Mexico](1935), the [Philippines](5103) and [El Salvador](10897).
## Infobox (settlement)
- **name**: Las Vegas
- **settlement type**: City
- **nicknames**: "Vegas", "Sin City", "City of Lights", "The Gambling Capital of the World", "The Entertainment Capital of the World", "Capital of Second Chances", "The Marriage Capital of the World", "The Silver City", "America's Playground"
- **image flag**: Flag of Las Vegas, Nevada.svg
- **image seal**: Seal of Las Vegas, Nevada.svg
- **subdivision type**: List of sovereign states, Country
- **subdivision name**: United States
- **subdivision type1**: U.S. state, State
- **subdivision name1**: Nevada
- **subdivision type2**: List of counties in Nevada, County
- **subdivision name2**: Clark County, Nevada, Clark
- **government type**: Council–manager
- **leader title**: List of mayors of Las Vegas, Mayor
- **leader name**: Shelley Berkley (Democratic Party (United States), D)
- **leader title1**: Mayor Pro Tem
- **leader name1**: Brian Knudsen (Democratic Party (United States), D)
- **leader title2**: City council
- **leader title3**: City manager
- **leader name3**: Mike Janssen
- **established title**: Founded
- **established date**: May 15, 1905
- **established title1**: Incorporated
- **established date1**: March 16, 1911
- **area total sq mi**: 141.91
- **area land sq mi**: 141.85
- **area water sq mi**: 0.05
- **population as of**: 2020 United States Census, 2020
- **population total**: 641903
- **population rank**: List of United States cities by population, 24th in the United States
List of cities in Nevada, 1st in Nevada
- **population urban**: 2,196,623 (List of United States urban areas, US: 21st)
- **population density urban km2**: 1,948.4
- **population density urban sq mi**: 5,046.3
- **population metro**: 2265461 (List of metropolitan statistical areas, US: 29th)
- **population density sq mi**: 4525.16
- **population density km2**: 1747.17
- **population demonym**: Las Vegan
- **demographics type2**: GDP
- **demographics2 title1**: Las Vegas (MSA)
- **demographics2 info1**: $160.7 billion (2022)
- **timezone1**: Pacific Standard Time Zone, PST
- **utc offset**: −08:00
- **timezone dst**: Pacific Daylight Time, PDT
- **utc offset dst**: −07:00
- **postal code type**: ZIP Codes
- **postal code**: 89044, 89054, 891xx
- **area code**: Area code 702, 702 & 725
- **elevation ft**: 2001
- **elevation m**: 610
- **blank name**: Federal Information Processing Standard, FIPS code
- **blank info**: 32-40000
- **blank1 name**: Geographic Names Information System, GNIS feature ID
- **blank1 info**: [http://geonames.usgs.gov/pls/gnispublic/f?p=gnispq:3:::NO::P3_FID:847388 847388]
- **unit pref**: Imperial
- **area total km2**: 367.53
- **area land km2**: 367.40
- **area water km2**: 0.14 | **Las Vegas** is a city in the American state of Nevada. There were 641,903 people living in the city in 2020, and more than 2,000,000 people living in the metropolitan area. It is the largest city in Nevada. Las Vegas is also the county seat of Clark County.
Las Vegas is famous for its casinos and resort hotels. It is one of the world's most popular places for tourism.
## Politics
Las Vegas leans to the left. Three of the four congressional districts in Nevada include parts of Las Vegas, and all three congresspeople representing those districts are Democrats from Las Vegas.
## History
Native Americans were the first to reside in the area, specifically the Paiute tribe. It was first called _Las Vegas_ (which means _The Meadows_ in the Spanish language) by the Spanish. The city is known for its dry weather, as is the rest of southern Nevada. It is surrounded by desert.
The US Army built Fort Baker there in 1864. Las Vegas has natural springs, where people used to stop for water when they were going to Los Angeles or other places in California.
In 1905, 110 acres owned by William A. Clark, on which he built a railroad to Southern California were auctioned and Las Vegas was founded as a railroad town. Las Vegas officially became a city in 1911.
The Hispanic population in Las Vegas is growing and has rapidly increased. Most Latino Las Vegas residents are of Mexican, Cuban and Salvadoran descent. Las Vegas also has a small Puerto Rican, Belizean, Guatemalan, Spaniard, Peruvian, Colombian, Honduran, Nicaraguan and Argentine population. The most common European ancestries in Las Vegas are German, Irish, Italian, Polish, French, Scottish, Russian, Swedish, Norwegian, Dutch and Welsh. Filipino, Korean, Vietnamese, Japanese, Indian and Chinese are the most common Asian ancestries.
## People
There is a Mexican, African-American, Chinese, Greek, German, Korean, Japanese, Armenian, Arab, Italian, Jewish, Iranian, Croatian, Polish, Filipino, Indian, Ethiopian and Chilean community in Las Vegas.
Las Vegas has a growing Hispanic population. Many Hispanics in Las Vegas are of Mexican, Cuban and Salvadoran ancestry.
Most of the foreign-born population were born in Mexico, the Philippines and El Salvador.
## Infobox (settlement)
- **name**: Las Vegas
- **settlement type**: City
- **nicknames**: "Vegas", "Sin City", "City of Lights", "The Gambling Capital of the World", "The Entertainment Capital of the World", "Capital of Second Chances", "The Marriage Capital of the World", "The Silver City", "America's Playground"
- **image flag**: Flag of Las Vegas, Nevada.svg
- **image seal**: Seal of Las Vegas, Nevada.svg
- **subdivision type**: List of sovereign states, Country
- **subdivision name**: United States
- **subdivision type1**: U.S. state, State
- **subdivision name1**: Nevada
- **subdivision type2**: List of counties in Nevada, County
- **subdivision name2**: Clark County, Nevada, Clark
- **government type**: Council–manager
- **leader title**: List of mayors of Las Vegas, Mayor
- **leader name**: Shelley Berkley (Democratic Party (United States), D)
- **leader title1**: Mayor Pro Tem
- **leader name1**: Brian Knudsen (Democratic Party (United States), D)
- **leader title2**: City council
- **leader title3**: City manager
- **leader name3**: Mike Janssen
- **established title**: Founded
- **established date**: May 15, 1905
- **established title1**: Incorporated
- **established date1**: March 16, 1911
- **area total sq mi**: 141.91
- **area land sq mi**: 141.85
- **area water sq mi**: 0.05
- **population as of**: 2020 United States Census, 2020
- **population total**: 641903
- **population rank**: List of United States cities by population, 24th in the United States
List of cities in Nevada, 1st in Nevada
- **population urban**: 2,196,623 (List of United States urban areas, US: 21st)
- **population density urban km2**: 1,948.4
- **population density urban sq mi**: 5,046.3
- **population metro**: 2265461 (List of metropolitan statistical areas, US: 29th)
- **population density sq mi**: 4525.16
- **population density km2**: 1747.17
- **population demonym**: Las Vegan
- **demographics type2**: GDP
- **demographics2 title1**: Las Vegas (MSA)
- **demographics2 info1**: $160.7 billion (2022)
- **timezone1**: Pacific Standard Time Zone, PST
- **utc offset**: −08:00
- **timezone dst**: Pacific Daylight Time, PDT
- **utc offset dst**: −07:00
- **postal code type**: ZIP Codes
- **postal code**: 89044, 89054, 891xx
- **area code**: Area code 702, 702 & 725
- **elevation ft**: 2001
- **elevation m**: 610
- **blank name**: Federal Information Processing Standard, FIPS code
- **blank info**: 32-40000
- **blank1 name**: Geographic Names Information System, GNIS feature ID
- **blank1 info**: [http://geonames.usgs.gov/pls/gnispublic/f?p=gnispq:3:::NO::P3_FID:847388 847388]
- **unit pref**: Imperial
- **area total km2**: 367.53
- **area land km2**: 367.40
- **area water km2**: 0.14 | high | false | false |
433 | Lanai | **Lanai** (or **Lānaʻi**) is sixth largest of the [Hawaiian Islands](3797), in the [United States](219587). It is also known as the "Pineapple Island". The island is almost a circle in shape and is 18 miles wide in the longest direction. The land area is 140 sq. miles (367 km<sup>2</sup>). It is separated from the island of [Moloka'i](478) by the Kalohi Channel to the north.
## History
Lana'i was first seen by Europeans on 25 February [1779](16512) by Captain Clerke, with _HMS Resolution_ on the [James Cook](19761) Pacific Ocean trip. Clerke took command of the ship after Capt. Cook was killed at Kealakekua Bay on February 14, and was leaving the islands for the North Pacific.
In [1922](10008), Jim Dole, the president of Dole Pineapple Company, bought the island of Lana'i. He made a large part of it into the world's largest [pineapple](15719) [plantation](50640).
## Tourism
Tourism on Lana'i started not long ago. That was when the growing of pineapple was slowly coming to an end in the Islands. On Lana'i, you can be with nature and feel the mood of the Hawaiian countryside. Not like nearby [O'ahu](573), the only town (Lana'i City) is small. It has no traffic or shopping centers. Tourists come mainly to relax.
There are three hotels on Lana'i and several golf courses. | **Lanai** (or **Lānaʻi**) is sixth largest of the Hawaiian Islands, in the United States. It is also known as the "Pineapple Island". The island is almost a circle in shape and is 18 miles wide in the longest direction. The land area is 140 sq. miles (367 km<sup>2</sup>). It is separated from the island of Moloka'i by the Kalohi Channel to the north.
## History
Lana'i was first seen by Europeans on 25 February 1779 by Captain Clerke, with _HMS Resolution_ on the James Cook Pacific Ocean trip. Clerke took command of the ship after Capt. Cook was killed at Kealakekua Bay on February 14, and was leaving the islands for the North Pacific.
In 1922, Jim Dole, the president of Dole Pineapple Company, bought the island of Lana'i. He made a large part of it into the world's largest pineapple plantation.
## Tourism
Tourism on Lana'i started not long ago. That was when the growing of pineapple was slowly coming to an end in the Islands. On Lana'i, you can be with nature and feel the mood of the Hawaiian countryside. Not like nearby O'ahu, the only town (Lana'i City) is small. It has no traffic or shopping centers. Tourists come mainly to relax.
There are three hotels on Lana'i and several golf courses. | medium | false | false |
434 | Leap year | A **leap year** is a calendar year in which an extra [day](3539) is added to the [Gregorian calendar](12159), which is used by most of the world. A [common year](3974) has 365 [day](3539)s, but a leap year has 366 days. The extra day, February 29, is added to the [month](3641) of [February](262). In a common year, February has 28 days, but in a leap year it has 29 days. The extra day, called a leap day, occurs on the same day of the week as the first day of the month, February 1.
The term "leap year" comes from the fact that while a specific date of the year advances one day of the week in a common year, in a leap year from March 1 until February 28 of the following year the date will advance 2 days due to the extra day in February, thereby "leaping" over one of the days of the week. For example, [Christmas Day](3317) (December 25) fell on a Wednesday in 2024, Thursday in 2025, falls on a Friday in 2026 and a Saturday in 2027, but then will leap over Sunday to fall on a Monday in 2028.
Because of this extra day, a leap year of 366 days has 52 weeks and two days. Therefore, a leap year does not begin and end on the same day of the week, as a common year does (for example, in 2024, January 1 fell on a Monday, but December 31 fell on a Tuesday). Thus, the year following a leap year starts two days of the week later instead of one. Additionally, with the exception of leap years after century years not divisible by 400, each leap year starts two days of the week earlier than the previous one. For example, since 2024 began on a Monday, the next leap year, 2028, will begin on a Saturday.
Leap years are evenly divisible by 4. The last leap year was 2024, and the next will be 2028. However, any year that is evenly divided by 100 is not a leap year unless it is also evenly divided by 400. This is why 1600, 2000, and 2400 are leap years, while 1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, 2200, and 2300 are common years, even though they are all divisible by 4.
We have leap years because instead of 365 days, the [Earth](219) really takes a few minutes less than 365–1/4 days (365.24219) to go completely around the [Sun](44408). Without leap years, the [season](6276)s would start one day earlier on the calendar every four years. After 360 years, [spring](16382) in the [Northern Hemisphere](6829) and [autumn](18860) in the [Southern Hemisphere](12161) would begin on December 21 (which is when winter in the Northern Hemisphere and summer in the Southern Hemisphere presently begins).
A number of countries use a [lunar calendar](480829) (based on the [Moon](107799), instead of the [Sun](44408), like our [solar calendar](227001) is). They have leap years when they add an extra lunar month. Different calendars add the extra month in different ways. So a year which has 366 days instead of 365 days where the month of February has 29 days is called a leap year.
In a leap year, the corresponding months are January, April, and July; February and August; March and November; as well as September and December. No month corresponds to May, June, nor October.
In the Gregorian calendar, 97 out of every 400 years are leap years. In the outdated [Julian calendar](12158), 100 years out of every 400 are leap years.
## Related pages
- [February 29](10114)
- [Common year](3974)
- [Century leap year](221992) | A **leap year** is a calendar year in which an extra day is added to the Gregorian calendar, which is used by most of the world. A common year has 365 days, but a leap year has 366 days. The extra day, February 29, is added to the month of February. In a common year, February has 28 days, but in a leap year it has 29 days. The extra day, called a leap day, occurs on the same day of the week as the first day of the month, February 1.
The term "leap year" comes from the fact that while a specific date of the year advances one day of the week in a common year, in a leap year from March 1 until February 28 of the following year the date will advance 2 days due to the extra day in February, thereby "leaping" over one of the days of the week. For example, Christmas Day (December 25) fell on a Wednesday in 2024, Thursday in 2025, falls on a Friday in 2026 and a Saturday in 2027, but then will leap over Sunday to fall on a Monday in 2028.
Because of this extra day, a leap year of 366 days has 52 weeks and two days. Therefore, a leap year does not begin and end on the same day of the week, as a common year does (for example, in 2024, January 1 fell on a Monday, but December 31 fell on a Tuesday). Thus, the year following a leap year starts two days of the week later instead of one. Additionally, with the exception of leap years after century years not divisible by 400, each leap year starts two days of the week earlier than the previous one. For example, since 2024 began on a Monday, the next leap year, 2028, will begin on a Saturday.
Leap years are evenly divisible by 4. The last leap year was 2024, and the next will be 2028. However, any year that is evenly divided by 100 is not a leap year unless it is also evenly divided by 400. This is why 1600, 2000, and 2400 are leap years, while 1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, 2200, and 2300 are common years, even though they are all divisible by 4.
We have leap years because instead of 365 days, the Earth really takes a few minutes less than 365–1/4 days (365.24219) to go completely around the Sun. Without leap years, the seasons would start one day earlier on the calendar every four years. After 360 years, spring in the Northern Hemisphere and autumn in the Southern Hemisphere would begin on December 21 (which is when winter in the Northern Hemisphere and summer in the Southern Hemisphere presently begins).
A number of countries use a lunar calendar (based on the Moon, instead of the Sun, like our solar calendar is). They have leap years when they add an extra lunar month. Different calendars add the extra month in different ways. So a year which has 366 days instead of 365 days where the month of February has 29 days is called a leap year.
In a leap year, the corresponding months are January, April, and July; February and August; March and November; as well as September and December. No month corresponds to May, June, nor October.
In the Gregorian calendar, 97 out of every 400 years are leap years. In the outdated Julian calendar, 100 years out of every 400 are leap years.
## Related pages
- February 29
- Common year
- Century leap year | high | false | false |
443 | Leather | **Leather** is the [skin](772) of an [animal](62) made into a durable [material](4363) by [tanning](74927). The skins of cows, [pig](14167)s, and [goat](38207)s are often used to make leather. Skins of [snake](15890)s, [alligator](32000)s or [crocodile](15061)s, and [ostrich](9066)es are sometimes used to make fancier leather. [Shoe](4711)s, [bag](5939)s, clothes, and [ball](7697)s are often made of leather. Sometimes people make leather out of whales, ducks, giraffes, and African elephants. All of these ways of making leather are very simple but some are rare.
## How leather is made
The way leather is made is divided into three processes. They are preparing the leather, [tanning](74927) it, and crusting.
In preparing the leather, many things are done to make it ready for tanning. They include soaking it, removing the [hair](359), liming, deliming, [bating](142292), bleaching, and [pickling](502659).
[Tanning](74927) is a process that makes the [proteins](636), especially [collagen](287270), in the raw hide stable. It increases the thermal and chemical [stability](331038) of the animal [skins](772). The difference between fresh and tanned animal skin is that fresh animal skin dries to make it hard and stiff. When water is added to it, it becomes bad. But, animal skin that is tanned dries to make it flexible. It does not become bad when water is added to it.
Crusting is a process that makes the leather thin and [lubricates](467400) it. Chemicals added when crusting must be set in place. Crusting ends with drying and making the leather soft. It may include splitting, shaving, dyeing, whitening or other methods.
## From other animals
Today, most leather is made from the skin of [cattle](5450), which makes up about 67% of all the leather made. Other animals that are used include [sheep](38213) (about 12%), [pigs](14167) (about 11%), and [goats](38207) (about 10%).
[Horse](11275) skin is used to make strong leather. Lamb and deerskin are used for soft leather. It is used in work gloves and indoor shoes.
[Kangaroo](17365) leather is used to make things that must be strong and flexible. It is used in bullwhips.
In [Thailand](10138), [stingray](35726) leather is used in wallets and belts. Stingray leather is tough and durable. | **Leather** is the skin of an animal made into a durable material by tanning. The skins of cows, pigs, and goats are often used to make leather. Skins of snakes, alligators or crocodiles, and ostriches are sometimes used to make fancier leather. Shoes, bags, clothes, and balls are often made of leather. Sometimes people make leather out of whales, ducks, giraffes, and African elephants. All of these ways of making leather are very simple but some are rare.
## How leather is made
The way leather is made is divided into three processes. They are preparing the leather, tanning it, and crusting.
In preparing the leather, many things are done to make it ready for tanning. They include soaking it, removing the hair, liming, deliming, bating, bleaching, and pickling.
Tanning is a process that makes the proteins, especially collagen, in the raw hide stable. It increases the thermal and chemical stability of the animal skins. The difference between fresh and tanned animal skin is that fresh animal skin dries to make it hard and stiff. When water is added to it, it becomes bad. But, animal skin that is tanned dries to make it flexible. It does not become bad when water is added to it.
Crusting is a process that makes the leather thin and lubricates it. Chemicals added when crusting must be set in place. Crusting ends with drying and making the leather soft. It may include splitting, shaving, dyeing, whitening or other methods.
## From other animals
Today, most leather is made from the skin of cattle, which makes up about 67% of all the leather made. Other animals that are used include sheep (about 12%), pigs (about 11%), and goats (about 10%).
Horse skin is used to make strong leather. Lamb and deerskin are used for soft leather. It is used in work gloves and indoor shoes.
Kangaroo leather is used to make things that must be strong and flexible. It is used in bullwhips.
In Thailand, stingray leather is used in wallets and belts. Stingray leather is tough and durable. | medium | false | false |
444 | License | A **license** (in [American English](28)) or **licence** (in [British English](83)) allows someone to do something that they otherwise are not allowed to do. A person usually has to pay some [money](479), and maybe pass a [test](823) to get a license. A license is usually written but it does not have to be. Most kinds of licenses can only be used by the person they were given to. Licenses may be temporary or permanent. Some licenses can not be taken away once they are given. A person with a license is called a **licensee**.
In many countries, if a person tries to do something without the correct license to do it, they might have to pay a [fine](283) or go to [prison](1934).
## Examples of licenses
There are many different types of licenses.
### Driver's license
The [law](426)s of most [countries](121) say that people are only allowed to drive cars if they have a [driver's license](177709). If a person does not have a license, they may have to pay a [fine](283) if they are caught by the [police](642). In many countries, a person must take a test and pay money to get a license. The test would check that they know the road rules, and have the skill to drive a car.
### Hunting license
Other licenses give permission to [shoot](177194) [animal](62)s (often called a [hunting](33836) license). The hunting license usually says when a person may hunt. A hunter may have to pass a test to show that they understand the rules about hunting.
### Television licence
In the [United Kingdom](856) and the [Republic of Ireland](5074), if someone has a [television](1999) set, they must buy a "television licence" every year.
### Copyright licenses
Copyright is a law that gives the owner of a creative work the right to decide what other people can do with it. A person or a [company](114693) can give a license to a [copyright](1586) that they own. So in order for another person to use an owner's copyright they need permission from the owner. For example, when someone buys computer software, they also need a license from the creator of the software (a copyright owner) allowing the buyer to use the software.
## Difference between license and licence
"License" is a [verb](893) and "licence" is a [noun](543). "Licensing sessions" were the meetings of magistrates which decided about giving licences to sell [alcohol](132957).
In [American English](28) there is no difference in spelling between the verb "to license" meaning to give permission, and the noun "a license" meaning the permission to do something.
## Distinction between a licence and a qualification
A degree in medicine is a qualification showing a person has successfully studied medicine. It is awarded for life. A licence to practice medicine is a legal permission to do so within the territory covered by the licensing authority. The licence may be taken away ('revoked') in certain situations.
## Related pages
- [Copyright](1586)
- [Patent](19139)
- [Trademark](838) | A **license** (in American English) or **licence** (in British English) allows someone to do something that they otherwise are not allowed to do. A person usually has to pay some money, and maybe pass a test to get a license. A license is usually written but it does not have to be. Most kinds of licenses can only be used by the person they were given to. Licenses may be temporary or permanent. Some licenses can not be taken away once they are given. A person with a license is called a **licensee**.
In many countries, if a person tries to do something without the correct license to do it, they might have to pay a fine or go to prison.
## Examples of licenses
There are many different types of licenses.
### Driver's license
The laws of most countries say that people are only allowed to drive cars if they have a driver's license. If a person does not have a license, they may have to pay a fine if they are caught by the police. In many countries, a person must take a test and pay money to get a license. The test would check that they know the road rules, and have the skill to drive a car.
### Hunting license
Other licenses give permission to shoot animals (often called a hunting license). The hunting license usually says when a person may hunt. A hunter may have to pass a test to show that they understand the rules about hunting.
### Television licence
In the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland, if someone has a television set, they must buy a "television licence" every year.
### Copyright licenses
Copyright is a law that gives the owner of a creative work the right to decide what other people can do with it. A person or a company can give a license to a copyright that they own. So in order for another person to use an owner's copyright they need permission from the owner. For example, when someone buys computer software, they also need a license from the creator of the software (a copyright owner) allowing the buyer to use the software.
## Difference between license and licence
"License" is a verb and "licence" is a noun. "Licensing sessions" were the meetings of magistrates which decided about giving licences to sell alcohol.
In American English there is no difference in spelling between the verb "to license" meaning to give permission, and the noun "a license" meaning the permission to do something.
## Distinction between a licence and a qualification
A degree in medicine is a qualification showing a person has successfully studied medicine. It is awarded for life. A licence to practice medicine is a legal permission to do so within the territory covered by the licensing authority. The licence may be taken away ('revoked') in certain situations.
## Related pages
- Copyright
- Patent
- Trademark | medium | false | false |
445 | Link | A **link**, also **hyperlink** in computing, is a part of a chain. A chain is made of many pieces of metal; each piece is a link.
Today, people also use the [word](911) link in a new way. The [World Wide Web](905) on the [Internet](362) is made of many different Web pages. The [computer](112) [software](1987) that people use to make these pages ([HTML](3032)) lets us go to other pages in a very fast and easy way.
The person who makes the web page can tell the computer to show a [word](911) or a [picture](6079) on the Web page as a **link**. This means that when we [click](4757) on the link with our [computer mouse](4690), the [computer](112) will show us the new page we want to see. Most links are blue, but they can be any color.
The color of the link will change to dark blue when clicked as the [web browser](912) recognises it in the browser's cache. Unless the cache is cleared, the link will always stay dark blue.
## Ways of making links
There are many ways in making a link on a web page. The process is different for different internet software.
### Plain HTML
In `.htm` and `.html` files, a link can be created using this code:
``
### Wiki syntax
Wiki syntax like [MediaWiki](495) uses a simpler way of making links. To create a link to another page of the same website:
`` or just ``.
To link to an external website:
``, ``, or just ``.
### BB code
BB code is used in forum software. To create a link:
``, or `` | A **link**, also **hyperlink** in computing, is a part of a chain. A chain is made of many pieces of metal; each piece is a link.
Today, people also use the word link in a new way. The World Wide Web on the Internet is made of many different Web pages. The computer software that people use to make these pages (HTML) lets us go to other pages in a very fast and easy way.
The person who makes the web page can tell the computer to show a word or a picture on the Web page as a **link**. This means that when we click on the link with our computer mouse, the computer will show us the new page we want to see. Most links are blue, but they can be any color.
The color of the link will change to dark blue when clicked as the web browser recognises it in the browser's cache. Unless the cache is cleared, the link will always stay dark blue.
## Ways of making links
There are many ways in making a link on a web page. The process is different for different internet software.
### Plain HTML
In `.htm` and `.html` files, a link can be created using this code:
``
### Wiki syntax
Wiki syntax like MediaWiki uses a simpler way of making links. To create a link to another page of the same website:
`` or just ``.
To link to an external website:
``, ``, or just ``.
### BB code
BB code is used in forum software. To create a link:
``, or `` | medium | false | false |
446 | Library | A **library** is a place where many [book](3686)s are kept. Most libraries are public and let people take the books to use in their home. Most libraries let people borrow books for several weeks. Some belong to [institution](60256)s, for example, [companies](114693), [church](142)es, [school](118745)s, and [universities](884). The people who work in libraries are librarians. Librarians are people who take care of the library.
Other libraries keep famous or rare books. There are a few "[Copyright](1586) libraries" which have a copy of every book which has been written in that country. Some libraries also have other things that people might like, such as [magazine](18448)s, [music](472) on [CDs](8026), or [computer](112)s where people can use the [Internet](362). In school they offer software to learn the alphabet and other details.With the spread of literacy, libraries have become essential tools for learning. Libraries are very important for the progress and development of a society. Libraries are collections of books and other informational materials, however a library can also be a collection of items or media. People come to libraries for reading, study or reference. Libraries contain a variety of materials. They contain printed materials, films, sound and video recordings, maps, photographs, computer software, online databases, and other media.
A library is not a [bookstore](7313) (a [store](19446) that [sell](109585)s books). Libraries and bookstores are two different things.
## Importance of a Library
The prime purpose of a library is to provide access to knowledge and information. To fulfil this mission, libraries preserve a valuable record of culture. Then they pass down this to the coming generations. Therefore, they are an essential link between the past, present and future.
People use libraries to work. They also use library resources to learn about personal interests. Sometimes, they get recreational media such as films and music. Students use libraries to study.
Libraries help the students to develop good reading and study habits. Public officials use libraries for research and public issues. The libraries provide information and services that are essential for learning and progress.
## Public libraries
Many places have a public library, where anybody can join if they live in the area. With a library card, people can borrow books and take them home for several [week](3935)s. It does not cost money to get a library card at most public libraries.
Books are kept on shelves in a special order so they are easy to find. Public libraries have lot of books on various topics including story books and many others. Many public libraries have books and CDs about learning [English](2843). Stories are kept in alphabetical order by the last name of the person who wrote them, the [writer](15228). Books about other things are often given a special number, that refers to what they are about. They are then put on the shelf in number order. One number system used by many libraries is the Dewey decimal system.
### Mobile libraries
In rural areas books may be taken in a bookmobile, or mobile library to remote places.
## Academic libraries
Many colleges and universities have large academic libraries. These libraries are for the use of college students, professors, and researchers. Academic libraries are used mainly for doing research like studying the [solar system](800) or how earthquakes happen. These libraries do not have the same types of books you would find in a public library. They usually do not have fiction books or books for children (unless they are being studied). Academic libraries can have many books, sometimes more than a million.
## Special libraries
Special libraries are those libraries that are not public libraries or academic libraries. They are usually small. Many times a special library holds books on a particular subject or even a special kind of book. Some special libraries keep just old books or books by Shakespeare. A special library can be owned by a business for use only by that business. For example, Disney World in Orlando has its own library that is not open to the public but for the use of the people who work for the company.
## Librarians
A [librarian](20550) is a person who works in a library. Librarians help people find books and information. They can teach people how to find books and use the library. A professional librarian is a person who went to university to study library science. They can earn the degree of Master in Library Science.
## History
The earliest known library was discovered in Iraq and belonged to the ancient civilization in Sumer. They didn't use paper books but instead wrote everything on clay tablets using a style of writing called [cuneiform](58241). These tablets are over 5,000 years old. The Library of Alexandria, in Egypt, was the largest and most important library of the ancient world. It was destroyed when the Romans conquered Egypt in 30 BC. Rome’s first public library was established by Asinius Pollio who was a lieutenant of Julius Caesar. Eventually Rome would build 28 public libraries within the city. When the [Roman Empire](664) fell in 330 AD, many books went east to the city of Byzantium where a large library was built. Other libraries were built in monasteries and public homes.
Libraries began to appear in many Islamic cities, where science and philosophy survived after the fall of the Roman Empire. Christian monks and Islamic libraries exchanged books to copy.
## Recent times
[COVID-19 pandemic](733960) has further changed how libraries operate in year 2020 and many of them around the world were faced with really hard choices as to which services to offer and which services to shut down for a limited time.
## Related pages
- [Archive](61296)
- [Bookcase](119686) | A **library** is a place where many books are kept. Most libraries are public and let people take the books to use in their home. Most libraries let people borrow books for several weeks. Some belong to institutions, for example, companies, churches, schools, and universities. The people who work in libraries are librarians. Librarians are people who take care of the library.
Other libraries keep famous or rare books. There are a few "Copyright libraries" which have a copy of every book which has been written in that country. Some libraries also have other things that people might like, such as magazines, music on CDs, or computers where people can use the Internet. In school they offer software to learn the alphabet and other details.With the spread of literacy, libraries have become essential tools for learning. Libraries are very important for the progress and development of a society. Libraries are collections of books and other informational materials, however a library can also be a collection of items or media. People come to libraries for reading, study or reference. Libraries contain a variety of materials. They contain printed materials, films, sound and video recordings, maps, photographs, computer software, online databases, and other media.
A library is not a bookstore (a store that sells books). Libraries and bookstores are two different things.
## Importance of a Library
The prime purpose of a library is to provide access to knowledge and information. To fulfil this mission, libraries preserve a valuable record of culture. Then they pass down this to the coming generations. Therefore, they are an essential link between the past, present and future.
People use libraries to work. They also use library resources to learn about personal interests. Sometimes, they get recreational media such as films and music. Students use libraries to study.
Libraries help the students to develop good reading and study habits. Public officials use libraries for research and public issues. The libraries provide information and services that are essential for learning and progress.
## Public libraries
Many places have a public library, where anybody can join if they live in the area. With a library card, people can borrow books and take them home for several weeks. It does not cost money to get a library card at most public libraries.
Books are kept on shelves in a special order so they are easy to find. Public libraries have lot of books on various topics including story books and many others. Many public libraries have books and CDs about learning English. Stories are kept in alphabetical order by the last name of the person who wrote them, the writer. Books about other things are often given a special number, that refers to what they are about. They are then put on the shelf in number order. One number system used by many libraries is the Dewey decimal system.
### Mobile libraries
In rural areas books may be taken in a bookmobile, or mobile library to remote places.
## Academic libraries
Many colleges and universities have large academic libraries. These libraries are for the use of college students, professors, and researchers. Academic libraries are used mainly for doing research like studying the solar system or how earthquakes happen. These libraries do not have the same types of books you would find in a public library. They usually do not have fiction books or books for children (unless they are being studied). Academic libraries can have many books, sometimes more than a million.
## Special libraries
Special libraries are those libraries that are not public libraries or academic libraries. They are usually small. Many times a special library holds books on a particular subject or even a special kind of book. Some special libraries keep just old books or books by Shakespeare. A special library can be owned by a business for use only by that business. For example, Disney World in Orlando has its own library that is not open to the public but for the use of the people who work for the company.
## Librarians
A librarian is a person who works in a library. Librarians help people find books and information. They can teach people how to find books and use the library. A professional librarian is a person who went to university to study library science. They can earn the degree of Master in Library Science.
## History
The earliest known library was discovered in Iraq and belonged to the ancient civilization in Sumer. They didn't use paper books but instead wrote everything on clay tablets using a style of writing called cuneiform. These tablets are over 5,000 years old. The Library of Alexandria, in Egypt, was the largest and most important library of the ancient world. It was destroyed when the Romans conquered Egypt in 30 BC. Rome’s first public library was established by Asinius Pollio who was a lieutenant of Julius Caesar. Eventually Rome would build 28 public libraries within the city. When the Roman Empire fell in 330 AD, many books went east to the city of Byzantium where a large library was built. Other libraries were built in monasteries and public homes.
Libraries began to appear in many Islamic cities, where science and philosophy survived after the fall of the Roman Empire. Christian monks and Islamic libraries exchanged books to copy.
## Recent times
COVID-19 pandemic has further changed how libraries operate in year 2020 and many of them around the world were faced with really hard choices as to which services to offer and which services to shut down for a limited time.
## Related pages
- Archive
- Bookcase | high | false | false |
450 | Like | **Like** has different [meanings](467197):
1. We can use **to like** to say that we find a thing is good:
- _I like my house._ = I think my house is good.
- _I like Jenny_ = I think Jenny is an OK person.
2. We can use **like** for "the same as" or "nearly the same as":
- _This [cheese](171) [sandwich](50866) feels like [rubber](30010)_ = the sandwich is difficult to eat, nearly the same as rubber.
- _Jenny is like her mother_ = Jenny has brown hair, and her mother also has brown hair (for example).
- _Your pen is like my pen_ = Your pen and my pen are the same sort.
3. We can also use **like** for "the same way as":
- _She runs like the wind_ - she and the wind are both fast.
- _She talks like a child_ - she and children speak slowly or with a high voice.
4. In a question, we can use **like** to ask people to talk about a thing, or to say if they find it good or not:
- _What's your house like?_ (Answer: "It has two bedrooms and a big kitchen...")
- _What was the film like?_ (Answer: "It was very good!")
5. We can also use **like** as "for example":
- _I often go to other countries, like France or Germany_ = I go to other countries, for example France and Germany.
6. In British and American English young people, when talking, have recently started using **like** as an extra word in the middle of sentences. Sometimes they use it to report what someone said, especially when mimicking the way they said it. This should never be used in writing:
- _The teacher was **like**: "Don't do that!"_
As works in the same way as example 2 - comparing two things using either the word "like" or the word "as" is called making a **simile** (_As big as an elephant_). It may be better to use the word "as" for this to stop confusion with example 1. | **Like** has different meanings:
1. We can use **to like** to say that we find a thing is good:
- _I like my house._ = I think my house is good.
- _I like Jenny_ = I think Jenny is an OK person.
2. We can use **like** for "the same as" or "nearly the same as":
- _This cheese sandwich feels like rubber_ = the sandwich is difficult to eat, nearly the same as rubber.
- _Jenny is like her mother_ = Jenny has brown hair, and her mother also has brown hair (for example).
- _Your pen is like my pen_ = Your pen and my pen are the same sort.
3. We can also use **like** for "the same way as":
- _She runs like the wind_ - she and the wind are both fast.
- _She talks like a child_ - she and children speak slowly or with a high voice.
4. In a question, we can use **like** to ask people to talk about a thing, or to say if they find it good or not:
- _What's your house like?_ (Answer: "It has two bedrooms and a big kitchen...")
- _What was the film like?_ (Answer: "It was very good!")
5. We can also use **like** as "for example":
- _I often go to other countries, like France or Germany_ = I go to other countries, for example France and Germany.
6. In British and American English young people, when talking, have recently started using **like** as an extra word in the middle of sentences. Sometimes they use it to report what someone said, especially when mimicking the way they said it. This should never be used in writing:
- _The teacher was **like**: "Don't do that!"_
As works in the same way as example 2 - comparing two things using either the word "like" or the word "as" is called making a **simile** (_As big as an elephant_). It may be better to use the word "as" for this to stop confusion with example 1. | medium | false | false |
453 | Political divisions of China | There are twenty-three [province](6617)s, four [municipalities](40994), five autonomous regions and two special administrative regions in the **[People's Republic of China](600)**. Provinces are pronounced _Shěng_ in Chinese [Pinyin](63142). Provinces and autonomous regions are subdivided into prefectures and sub-provincial cities.
The island of **[Taiwan](833)** is claimed as a [province](427492) by the People's Republic of China (PRC), but is not under their control. [Taiwan](833) is an [island](367) known as **Republic of China (Taiwan)**.
## Provinces
There are 23 provinces in the People's Republic of China.
- [Anhui](340415)
- [Fujian](198693)
- [Gansu](446123)
- [Guangdong](282251)
- [Guizhou](645693)
- [Hainan](409069)
- [Hebei](530267)
- [Heilongjiang](18458)
- [Henan](185601)
- [Hubei](446121)
- [Hunan](191535)
- [Jiangsu](422402)
- [Jiangxi](161810)
- [Jilin](18459)
- [Liaoning](18460)
- [Qinghai](386957)
- [Shaanxi](4105)
- [Shandong](600555)
- [Shanxi](213370)
- [Sichuan](88003)
- [Taiwan](427492)*
- [Yunnan](223880)
- [Zhejiang](223608)
The island of **[Taiwan](833)** is claimed as a [province](427492) by the People's Republic of China (PRC), but it is not under their control. [Taiwan](833) is an [island](367) known as **Republic of China (Taiwan)**.
## Municipalities
There are 4 municipalities in the People's Republic of China. "Municipality" is the common English name for the Chinese _zhíxiáshì_, meaning a city directly controlled by the national government.
- [Beijing](89), formerly part of [Hebei](530267)
- [Tianjin](223601), formerly part of [Hebei](530267)
- [Shanghai](7420), formerly part of [Jiangsu](422402)
- [Chongqing](36600), formerly part of [Sichuan](88003)
## Autonomous Regions
There are 5 autonomous regions in the People's Republic of China. "Autonomous region" is the common English name for the Chinese _zìzhìqū_, meaning an area with greater levels of self-government to accommodate minority groups.
- [Xinjiang](192788), for the Uygurs and other Turkic peoples
- [Tibet](35288), for Tibetans
- [Inner Mongolia](143123), for Mongolians
- [Guangxi](191537), for the [Zhuang](714444)
- [Ningxia](600979), for the Hui
## Special Administrative Regions
There are 2 special administrative regions in the People's Republic of China. "Special administrative region" is the common English name for the Chinese _tèbié xíngzhèng qū_, meaning an area under special administration as a result of [treaties](2904) that returned former [Europe](216)an [colonies](8503) to Chinese control.
- [Hong Kong](4860), formerly a [British](856) colony
- [Macau](17171), formerly a [Portuguese](3466) colony | There are twenty-three provinces, four municipalities, five autonomous regions and two special administrative regions in the **People's Republic of China**. Provinces are pronounced _Shěng_ in Chinese Pinyin. Provinces and autonomous regions are subdivided into prefectures and sub-provincial cities.
The island of **Taiwan** is claimed as a province by the People's Republic of China (PRC), but is not under their control. Taiwan is an island known as **Republic of China (Taiwan)**.
## Provinces
There are 23 provinces in the People's Republic of China.
- Anhui
- Fujian
- Gansu
- Guangdong
- Guizhou
- Hainan
- Hebei
- Heilongjiang
- Henan
- Hubei
- Hunan
- Jiangsu
- Jiangxi
- Jilin
- Liaoning
- Qinghai
- Shaanxi
- Shandong
- Shanxi
- Sichuan
- Taiwan*
- Yunnan
- Zhejiang
The island of **Taiwan** is claimed as a province by the People's Republic of China (PRC), but it is not under their control. Taiwan is an island known as **Republic of China (Taiwan)**.
## Municipalities
There are 4 municipalities in the People's Republic of China. "Municipality" is the common English name for the Chinese _zhíxiáshì_, meaning a city directly controlled by the national government.
- Beijing, formerly part of Hebei
- Tianjin, formerly part of Hebei
- Shanghai, formerly part of Jiangsu
- Chongqing, formerly part of Sichuan
## Autonomous Regions
There are 5 autonomous regions in the People's Republic of China. "Autonomous region" is the common English name for the Chinese _zìzhìqū_, meaning an area with greater levels of self-government to accommodate minority groups.
- Xinjiang, for the Uygurs and other Turkic peoples
- Tibet, for Tibetans
- Inner Mongolia, for Mongolians
- Guangxi, for the Zhuang
- Ningxia, for the Hui
## Special Administrative Regions
There are 2 special administrative regions in the People's Republic of China. "Special administrative region" is the common English name for the Chinese _tèbié xíngzhèng qū_, meaning an area under special administration as a result of treaties that returned former European colonies to Chinese control.
- Hong Kong, formerly a British colony
- Macau, formerly a Portuguese colony | medium | false | false |
457 | Legislature | **Legislature** is a word that comes from the [Latin](6592) language, meaning "those who write the [law](426)s." A legislature is therefore a group of people who introduce, debate and vote for and on new laws, for example in a [state](798) or country.
Each person in the legislature is usually either [elected](3790) or appointed. The [constitution](173) of that state or country usually tells how a legislature is supposed to work.
In many countries, the legislature is called a [Parliament](4075), [Congress](51928), or [National Assembly](183961). Sometimes there are two groups of members in the legislature. This is called a "_bicameral_" legislature. A unicameral legislature has only one group of members.
A [country](121), [district](21239), [city](144), or other small area may also have something like a legislature. These are often called [councils](47595), and they make smaller laws for their areas.
### National
- [Parliament](4075)
- [Congress](51928)
- [Diet](47749)
- [National Assembly](183961)
- [Althing](21490) — [Iceland](2979)
- [Assembleia da República](816895) — [Portugal](3466)
- Bundestag — [Germany](219828)
- [Riksdag](411363) — [Sweden](2136)
- [Cortes Generales](751103) — [Spain](219832)
- Eduskunta — [Finland](292)
- [Federal Assembly](952414) — [Russia](2964), [Switzerland](2161)
- [Folketing](323053) — [Denmark](208)
- Stortinget — [Norway](3460)
- [Knesset](276030) — [Israel](64543)
- Assembly of Albania — [Albania](3461)
- [Legislative Yuan](753167) — Republic of China/Taiwan
- [Islamic Consultative Assembly](345241) — [Iran](3772)
### Sub-National
- List of state legislatures of the United States — [United States](219587)
- General Assembly / Assembly
- Great and General Court / General Court
- House of Delegates
- Landtag — [Germany](219828), [Austria](55)
- Canada
- Legislative Assembly — All [provinces and territories](431) except:
- National Assembly — [Quebec](649)
- House of Assembly — [Nova Scotia](11009) and [Newfoundland and Labrador](17494)
- Australia
- Legislative Assembly - All States and Territories except:
- House of Assembly - [South Australia](37521) and [Tasmania](7482)
- Legislative Council - All States except Queensland
- [United Kingdom](856)
- [Scottish Parliament](161070) — [Scotland](3049)
- [Northern Ireland Assembly](66593) — [Northern Ireland](3050)
- National Assembly for Wales — [Wales](3048)
- [Houses of Parliament](115539) — [United Kingdom](856) overall.
## Related pages
- [Separation of powers](67174) | **Legislature** is a word that comes from the Latin language, meaning "those who write the laws." A legislature is therefore a group of people who introduce, debate and vote for and on new laws, for example in a state or country.
Each person in the legislature is usually either elected or appointed. The constitution of that state or country usually tells how a legislature is supposed to work.
In many countries, the legislature is called a Parliament, Congress, or National Assembly. Sometimes there are two groups of members in the legislature. This is called a "_bicameral_" legislature. A unicameral legislature has only one group of members.
A country, district, city, or other small area may also have something like a legislature. These are often called councils, and they make smaller laws for their areas.
### National
- Parliament
- Congress
- Diet
- National Assembly
- Althing — Iceland
- Assembleia da República — Portugal
- Bundestag — Germany
- Riksdag — Sweden
- Cortes Generales — Spain
- Eduskunta — Finland
- Federal Assembly — Russia, Switzerland
- Folketing — Denmark
- Stortinget — Norway
- Knesset — Israel
- Assembly of Albania — Albania
- Legislative Yuan — Republic of China/Taiwan
- Islamic Consultative Assembly — Iran
### Sub-National
- List of state legislatures of the United States — United States
- General Assembly / Assembly
- Great and General Court / General Court
- House of Delegates
- Landtag — Germany, Austria
- Canada
- Legislative Assembly — All provinces and territories except:
- National Assembly — Quebec
- House of Assembly — Nova Scotia and Newfoundland and Labrador
- Australia
- Legislative Assembly - All States and Territories except:
- House of Assembly - South Australia and Tasmania
- Legislative Council - All States except Queensland
- United Kingdom
- Scottish Parliament — Scotland
- Northern Ireland Assembly — Northern Ireland
- National Assembly for Wales — Wales
- Houses of Parliament — United Kingdom overall.
## Related pages
- Separation of powers | high | false | false |
459 | Linear algebra | **Linear algebra** is a branch of [mathematics](467). It came from mathematicians trying to solve systems of [linear equation](280434)s. Vectors and [matrices](5398) are used to solve these systems. The main objects of study currently are [vector space](41814)s and [linear mapping](436993)s between vector spaces. Linear algebra is useful in other branches of mathematics (e.g. differential equations and [analytic geometry](712178)). It can also be applied to the real world in areas such as [engineering](2816), [physics](591) and [economics](246).
Linear [algebra](45) describes ways to solve and manipulate (rearrange) systems of linear [equation](8335)s.
For example, consider the following equations:
These two equations form a system of linear equations.
It is linear because none of the [variable](8460)s are raised to a [power](286359).
The [graph](6495) of a **linear** equation in two variables is a [straight](16267) [line](4373).
The solution to this system is:
This is because it makes all of the original equations valid, that is, the [value](886) on the left side of the [equals sign](90420) is exactly the same as the value on the right side for both equations.
Linear algebra uses a system of notation for describing system behavior, called a [matrix](5398). For the previous example, the [coefficient](80816)s of the equations can be stored in a coefficient matrix.
## Related pages
- [Abstract algebra](46328)
- [Matrix analysis](761845)
- [Matrix function](788419)
- [Numerical linear algebra](750153)
- [System of linear equations](319362)
## Further reading
- [Israel Gelfand](751777) (1998), Lectures on linear algebra, Courier Dover Publications. | **Linear algebra** is a branch of mathematics. It came from mathematicians trying to solve systems of linear equations. Vectors and matrices are used to solve these systems. The main objects of study currently are vector spaces and linear mappings between vector spaces. Linear algebra is useful in other branches of mathematics (e.g. differential equations and analytic geometry). It can also be applied to the real world in areas such as engineering, physics and economics.
Linear algebra describes ways to solve and manipulate (rearrange) systems of linear equations.
For example, consider the following equations:
These two equations form a system of linear equations.
It is linear because none of the variables are raised to a power.
The graph of a **linear** equation in two variables is a straight line.
The solution to this system is:
This is because it makes all of the original equations valid, that is, the value on the left side of the equals sign is exactly the same as the value on the right side for both equations.
Linear algebra uses a system of notation for describing system behavior, called a matrix. For the previous example, the coefficients of the equations can be stored in a coefficient matrix.
## Related pages
- Abstract algebra
- Matrix analysis
- Matrix function
- Numerical linear algebra
- System of linear equations
## Further reading
- Israel Gelfand (1998), Lectures on linear algebra, Courier Dover Publications. | medium | false | false |
460 | London | **London** is the [capital](1968) and largest city of both [England](3047) and the [United Kingdom](856).
It is also the city with the highest population in the UK. The population is just under 9 million. The city is the largest in western [Europe](216) by population and area.
On the [Thames](3308), London has been a central city since it was founded by the [Romans](664) two millennia ago as **Londinium**. The Romans bridged the river Thames and built a road network to connect Londinium with the rest of the country.
London's original city centre, the [City of London](3299) is England's smallest city. In 2011 it had 7,375 inhabitants on an area of . The term "London" is used for the urban region which developed around this city centre. This area forms the region of London, the Greater London administrative unit led by the [Mayor of London](66256) and the [London Assembly](135398).
London is one of the world's most important political, economic and cultural centres. London was the capital of the [British Empire](23677) and so for almost three centuries the centre of power for large parts of the world.
The city has about 9.1 million inhabitants (2018). If one counts the entire metropolitan area of London (London Metropolitan Area), it has about 15 million people. The [climate](1970) is moderate.
## History
The [Romans](41112) built the city of _Londinium_ along the River Thames in AD [43](433160). The name _Londinium_ (and later 'London') came from the [Celtic](24088) language of the [Ancient Britons](47793). In AD 61, the city was attacked and destroyed. Then the Romans rebuilt the city, and London became an important trading hub.
### 5th century: end of Roman rule to 12th century
After the decline of the Roman Empire, few people remained in London. The Anglo-Saxon people of [sub-Roman Britain](394131) were mainly agricultural. Once the Romans had gone, trade with Continental Europe got less. In the [9th century](15635), more people started living in London again. It became the largest city in England. However, it did not become the capital city of England again until the [12th century](15592). For a long time after the Romans, England was not unified, and so had no capital.
### 15th/16th century
Trade grew and the [East India Company](271476) was founded as a monopoly trader. London became the main [North Sea](6308) port, and migrants went from England. The population rose from about 50,000 in 1530 to about 225,000 in 1605.
The 16th century was a time of great change in the monarchy and the Church. The Church became the [Church of England](28053). The [Scottish](134312) Church stayed loyal to Rome and [Catholicism](7160). In England the Bible had already been translated. This meant ordinary people could know for the first time what the Bible actually said. Before that a congregation had to accept what their preacher said. Elizabeth I was the main driver of these changes.
### 17th century
The 17th century saw Londoners suffer from the plague and the fire of London. The century starts with the famous [Gunpowder Plot](20365).
In the 17th century the Stuart kings ruled: James I and [Charles I](25454). Charles Stuart was defeated by [Cromwell](47459), so the century was remarkable in that respect. Cromwell marks the beginning of the modern system whereby Parliament is more important than the monarch. The war between Cromwell and Charles was bitterly fought. London was the key city, and [Oxford](7296) was also important.
The century also had two great disasters: the [Great Plague](43585) and the [Great Fire of London](43473). The control of London by Cromwell and Parliament was one of the decisive factors in the civil war. Cromwell's victory was followed by his death in 1658, and the country for a time moved back to royal rule under [Charles II](24437).
The plague virus, carried by fleas on rats, came to Britain from Europe.
The [Great Fire of London](43473) broke out at the beginning of September 1666. Unfortunately there were [warehouse](79716)s full of timber, [pitch](839739), [tallow](847792), [wine](935) and [tar](169672). These caught fire and, in the end, all the riverfront buildings were destroyed. The fire eventually destroyed about 60% of the city, (mainly the City of London, rather than the large city we have today). Old St Paul's Cathedral was destroyed. Some fires burnt more widely, up to present-day [Southwark](261041) and even [Highgate](391957).
## Modern era
Another famous old part of Greater London is [Westminster](65791), which was a different city from the City of London. In Westminster is [Westminster Abbey](14075) (a cathedral), the [Palace of Westminster](115539) (the Houses of Parliament), and [10 Downing Street](261239) (where the [Prime Minister](3598) lives).
After the railways were built, London grew much larger. Greater London has 33 [boroughs](3297) (neighbourhoods) and a mayor. The old [City of London](3299) is only a square mile in size but has its own [Lord Mayor](66267).
### Expansion of London
In stages, London has several times increased in size by statute in [Parliament](4075). The main motive for this has been taxation, and the increase in houses in what was once countryside. Since taxation was paid to the counties surrounding London, there was a motive for absorbing the countryside into London. This happened in several stages.
Outside London, local taxes are paid to the [County Councils](54090); inside London they are paid to the [Greater London Council](66254). One county has been lost entirely ([Middlesex](252776)) and all the others have lost land and revenue. The London Boroughs and the GLA ([Greater London Authority](66255)) both raise taxes, and the representatives are elected. There is a London Plan which sets out the priorities. The number of local authorities which raise local taxes and spend it is 33: 32 London boroughs and the [City of London](3299).
### Geology
One aspect of its [geology](19223) had big consequences. North of the Thames London is on [chalk](6110), which is easy (with modern equipment) to tunnel through. South of the Thames London is on [clay](22550), which was, and still is, much more difficult to dig out. So most of the subterranean engineering is north of the Thames. The road system south of the Thames is also inadequate by modern standards. This difference is reflected in the prices for property, the road transport, the Underground railway and the definition of "London" as a taxable area. The growth of London has been more vigorous North of the Thames, and has included the complete absorption of Middlesex, once a separate county.
## Events
- AD 43 Londinium is founded by the [Roman](655)s.
- 61 – Londinium is sacked by [Queen Boudica](37793) and the [Iceni](699877).
- 100 – Londinium becomes the capital of Roman Britain.
- 200 – The population is about 6,000.
- 410 – the end of Roman rule in [Britain](3051)
- [8th century](15636) – London is captured by Vikings.
- 885 – King [Alfred the Great](43660) recaptures the city and makes peace with the Viking leader [Guthrum](595533).
- 1045/50 – [Westminster Abbey](14075) is rebuilt by [Edward the Confessor](41492) who is buried there in January 1066.
- [1066](11672) – [William the Conqueror](5568) is crowned in Westminster Abbey.
- 1100 – The population is about 16,000.
- 1300 – The population of London has risen to 100,000.
- [1381](66406) – the [Peasants' Revolt](417466) – the first poll tax riots
- [1605](11548) – The [Gunpowder Plot](20365) is stopped.
- [1642](9208) – The [English Civil War](30048) starts.
- [1647](30083) – London supports [Cromwell](47459)'s army.
- [1665](39074) – the [Great Plague of London](43585)
- [1666](12521) – the [Great Fire of London](43473)
- [1700](16513)s – the Georgian era (the time of [George III](313995))
- [1780](20446) – the [Gordon Riots](797889)
- [1900](10606)s – [Canal](4706)s, railways, [bridge](5010)s. [British Empire](23677).
- [1851](10548) – The [Great Exhibition](74816) is held at the [Crystal Palace](61722).
- [1908](11079) – The [Olympic Games](72219) take place in London.
- 1940/1941 – London was bombed by [German](219828) planes during [World War II](219837): explosive and [incendiary](56030) bombs. This was known as [The Blitz](73718).
- 1944/45 – London bombed by [V-1 flying bomb](318264) and later the V2 rockets.
- 1948 – The Summer [Olympic Games](72171) take place in London for the second time.
- 1966 – The Football World Cup final took place in London. It was won by England.
- 1990 – the Second Poll Tax Riots
- 2005 – The [7 July bombings](178201) on the [London Underground](8157) and [a bus](319955). 52 people die and over 700 people are injured.
- 2012 – The Summer [Olympic Games](72143) take place in London for a third time.
- 2017 – There were two [terrorist attacks](3524). [The first](577629) happened in March on [Westminster Bridge](214196) and [Parliament Square](931213). Five people were killed outside the [Palace of Westminster](115539), including the attacker and a police officer. 40 more people were injured. Another attack happened on [London Bridge](260943) in June. Seven people were killed before the Metropolitan Police shot down the three attackers near Borough Market. The [Islamic State](281901) has said they were responsible for both attacks.
- 2020 – [COVID-19](733960) did not affect London much until the Spring of 2020. From then until mid 2022, every aspect of life was affected. Government regulation of private life was almost unknown except in wartime (WWII). Many aspects of consumer activity have taken time to recover. Education of young people was interrupted, shops closed and all forms of live mass entertainment were banned.
## Landmarks
- [Big Ben](41927) (Elizabeth Tower)
- [Buckingham Palace](42121)
- [Millennium Dome](7379)
- [London Eye](46004)
- [Nelson's Column](31960) in [Trafalgar Square](4893)
- [Tower Bridge](8456)
- [London Underground](8157)
- [Natural History Museum](204251)
- St. Paul's Cathedral
- [Palace of Westminster](115539)
- [The Shard](351983)
- [Alexandra Palace](931185)
- [Tower of London](5160)
## Business and economy
London has five major business districts: the [City](3299), Westminster, Canary Wharf, Camden & Islington and Lambeth & Southwark.
The London Stock Exchange is the most international stock exchange and the largest in Europe.
### Financial services
London's largest industry is finance. This includes banks, stock exchanges, investment companies and insurance companies The Bank of England is in the City of London and is the second oldest bank in the world.
### Professional services
London has many professional services such as law and accounting firms.
### Media
The British Broadcasting Company (BBC), which has many radio and TV stations, is in London.
### Tourism
Tourism is one of London's biggest industries. London is the most visited city in the world by international tourists with 18.8 million international visitors per year. Within the UK, London is home to the ten most-visited tourist attractions. Tourism employed about 350,000 full-time workers in London in 2003. Tourists spend about £15 billion per year.
### Technology
A growing number of technology companies are based in London.
### Retail
London is a major retail centre, and in 2010 had the highest non-food retail sales of any city in the world, with a total spend of around £64.2 billion. The UK's fashion industry, centred on London, contributes tens of billions to the economy.
### Manufacturing and construction
For the 19th and much of the 20th centuries London was a major manufacturing centre (see Manufacturing in London), with over 1.5 million industrial workers in 1960. Many products were made in London including ships, electronics and cars. Nowadays, most of these manufacturing companies are closed but some drug companies still make medicine in London.
## Transportation (trains, airports and underground)
The city has a huge network of [transport](3794) systems including trains, [underground](8157) (metro) and five main airports.
The [Victorians](183833) built many train systems in the mid-19th century (1850s). Their main stations are in London, and the lines go to every part of [Great Britain](3051). There were originally five major companies but the five companies became a national rail network in modern times. Their terminals at [King's Cross](183424), [St. Pancras](261088), [Paddington](160816), [Waterloo](214668) and [Charing Cross](358379) are still used as terminals.
There are five [airport](3610)s, though only one is actually in London ([London City Airport](113000)). The most used airport is [Heathrow Airport](112987), although it is actually outside the city. There is the London end of the London[Birmingham](6416) [canal](4706), which was important to the industrial 19th century. Really heavy goods can be best transported on water by canal or sea.
The [London Underground](8157) is a system of [electric](34923) trains which are in London. It is the oldest underground railway in the world. It started running in 1863 as the _Metropolitan Railway_. Later, the system was copied in other cities, for example [Paris](4467), [New York](566), [Moscow](2965) and [Madrid](473). Even though it is called the London Underground, about half of it is above the ground. The "Tube" is the name used for the London Underground, because the tunnels for some the central lines are semi-round tubes running through the ground. The Underground has 274 stations and over 250 miles (402 km) of [track](12307). Over one [billion](467299) passengers used the Underground each year.
With the need for more rail capacity in London, the [Elizabeth line](647918) (also known as _Crossrail_) opened in May 2022. It is a new railway line running east to west through London, with a branch to [Heathrow Airport](112987). It is Europe's biggest construction project, with a £15 billion projected cost.
There is a black [taxi](32809) system regulated by the [Metropolitan Police](281225), and various other private enterprise hire car companies. Efforts are being made to make roads safer for cyclists.
## Sewage tunnel
London's biggest tunnel has just been completed to take sewage from the capital to the East where it is processed.
## Climate
London has a [temperate](45850) [oceanic climate](451608) ([Köppen climate classification](45926): _Cfb_). It is not usually very hot or cold. It is often cloudy.
[Summer](3640)s are generally warm, sometimes hot. [Winter](6643)s are generally cool. [Spring](16382) and [autumn](18860) are mild.
London has regular, light [rain](3990) throughout the year. July is the warmest month, with an average temperature at [Greenwich](48068) of 13.6 °C to 22.8 °C. The coldest month is January, with an average of 2.4 °C to 7.9 °C. The average annual [precipitation](3875) is fairly low at 583.6 mm, and February is normally the driest month. [Drought](23713) is sometimes possible, especially during longer heatwaves in summer. [Snow](4039) is uncommon but usually falls at least once each winter and heavy snow is rarer and does not happen every winter. While snow is uncommon in [central London](270498) itself, there is more snow in the outer areas; this is because the "[urban heat island](500415)" the big city generates makes the city about 5 °C warmer than surrounding areas in winter.
Temperature extremes in London range from at Heathrow Airport on 19 July 2022 down to at Northolt on 1 January 1962.
## Twinnings
London has twin and sister city agreements with these cities:
- Sister cities:
- [Berlin](2922), [Germany](219828) (since 2000)
- [New York City](566), USA (since 2001)
- [Moscow](2965), [Russia](2964)
- [Beijing](89), [China](600) (since 2006)
- Partner cities:
- [Paris](4467), [France](291) (since 2001)
- [Rome](2875), [Italy](363)
London also has a "partnership" agreement with [Tokyo](4329), [Japan](403).
## Other websites
- [London City Government](http://www.london.gov.uk/)
- [WorldFlicks in London: Photos and interesting places on Google Maps](http://wiki.worldflicks.org/london.html). .
- [Events in London](https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/top-10-annual-events-in-london-1-1378476/?page=2)
## Infobox (settlement)
- **name**: London
- **image skyline**: <imagemap>
File:London Montage L.jpg
- 275px
- center
- **alt**: London montage. Clicking on an image in the picture causes the browser to load the appropriate article.
rect 217 123 282 330 Heron Tower
rect 322 123 380 330 Tower 42
rect 441 154 498 330 30 St Mary Axe
rect 505 87 572 330 Leadenhall Building
rect 638 208 699 251 Willis Building (London), Willis Building
rect 596 251 715 332 Lloyds Building
rect 740 217 851 275 Canary Wharf
rect 888 168 940 330 20 Fenchurch Street
rect 0 330 1200 450 City of London
rect 0 460 330 1420 London Underground
rect 330 460 622 1420 Elizabeth Tower
rect 632 460 1200 951 Trafalgar Square
rect 632 961 1200 1420 London Eye
rect 0 1429 1200 1765 Tower Bridge
rect 0 1765 1200 1809 River Thames
</imagemap>
- **settlement type**: Capital city
- **image caption**: Clockwise from top: City of London in the foreground with Canary Wharf in the far background, Trafalgar Square, London Eye, Tower Bridge and a London Underground roundel in front of Big Ben, Elizabeth Tower
- **pushpin map caption**: Position in the United Kingdom##Location in Europe##Location on Earth
- **pushpin relief**: 1
- **pushpin map**: UK#Europe#Earth
- **subdivision type**: List of sovereign states, Sovereign state
- **subdivision name**: United Kingdom
- **subdivision type2**: Regions of England, Region
- **subdivision type3**: Counties of England, Counties
- **subdivision name1**: England
- **subdivision name2**: Greater London, London (coterminous)
- **subdivision name3**: Greater London
City of London
- **established title**: Settled by Roman Empire, Romans
- **established date**: AD 47
_as Londinium_
- **parts type**: Districts of England, Districts
- **parts**: City of London & London borough#List of boroughs, 32 boroughs
- **government type**: Directly elected mayors in England and Wales, Executive mayoralty and deliberative assembly within unitary state, unitary constitutional monarchy
- **governing body**: Greater London Authority
**• **Mayor of London, Mayor Sadiq Khan (London Labour Party, L)
**• **London Assembly
- **total type**: Total
- **area total km2**: 1572
- **area metro km2**: 8382
- **area urban km2**: 1737.9
- **area blank1 title**: City of London
- **area blank1 km2**: 2.90
- **area blank2 title**: Greater London
- **area blank2 km2**: 1569
- **elevation m**: 11
- **population total**: 8,908,081
- **population as of**: 2018
- **population density km2**: 5,666
- **population blank1 title**: City of London
- **population blank1**: 8,706 (List of cities in the United Kingdom, 67th)
- **population blank2 title**: Greater London
- **population blank2**: 9,002,488
- **population urban**: 9,950,000
- **population metro**: 14,257,962 (List of metropolitan areas in the United Kingdom, 1st)
- **population demonyms**: Londoner
- **demographics type1**: GVA
- **demographics1 title1**: Total
- **demographics1 info1**: GBP, £487 billion
($ billion)
- **demographics1 title2**: Per capita
- **demographics1 info2**: GBP, £54,686
($)
- **blank3 name**: Human Development Index, HDI (2017)
- **blank3 info**: 0.965 – <span style="color:#090;">very high</span>
- **postal code type**: Postcodes in the United Kingdom, Postcode areas
- **leader title**: London Assembly
- **leader name**: London Assembly constituencies, 14 constituencies
- **leader title1**: Parliament of the United Kingdom, UK Parliament
- **leader name1**: List of Parliamentary constituencies in London, 73 constituencies
- **timezone**: Greenwich Mean Time
- **utc offset**: ±00:00UTC
- **timezone dst**: British Summer Time
- **utc offset dst**: +1
- **blank name sec1**: Police in the United Kingdom, Police
- **blank info sec1**: City of London Police, City of London
Metropolitan Police Service, Metropolitan
- **blank1 name sec1**: Fire services in the United Kingdom, Fire and rescue
- **blank1 info sec1**: London Fire Brigade, London
- **blank2 name sec1**: Ambulance service, Ambulance
- **blank2 info sec1**: London Ambulance Service, London
- **blank3 name sec1**: Airports of London, Airports
- **blank3 info sec1**: London Heathrow Airport, Heathrow (International Air Transport Association airport code, LHR)
London City Airport, City (International Air Transport Association airport code, LCY)
Outside London:
Gatwick Airport, Gatwick (International Air Transport Association airport code, LGW)
London Stansted Airport, Stansted (International Air Transport Association airport code, STN)
Luton Airport, Luton (International Air Transport Association airport code, LTN)
London Southend Airport, Southend (International Air Transport Association airport code, SEN)
- **blank name sec2**: GeoTLD
- **blank info sec2**: .london
- **website**: [https://london.gov.uk/ london.gov.uk] | **London** is the capital and largest city of both England and the United Kingdom.
It is also the city with the highest population in the UK. The population is just under 9 million. The city is the largest in western Europe by population and area.
On the Thames, London has been a central city since it was founded by the Romans two millennia ago as **Londinium**. The Romans bridged the river Thames and built a road network to connect Londinium with the rest of the country.
London's original city centre, the City of London is England's smallest city. In 2011 it had 7,375 inhabitants on an area of . The term "London" is used for the urban region which developed around this city centre. This area forms the region of London, the Greater London administrative unit led by the Mayor of London and the London Assembly.
London is one of the world's most important political, economic and cultural centres. London was the capital of the British Empire and so for almost three centuries the centre of power for large parts of the world.
The city has about 9.1 million inhabitants (2018). If one counts the entire metropolitan area of London (London Metropolitan Area), it has about 15 million people. The climate is moderate.
## History
The Romans built the city of _Londinium_ along the River Thames in AD 43. The name _Londinium_ (and later 'London') came from the Celtic language of the Ancient Britons. In AD 61, the city was attacked and destroyed. Then the Romans rebuilt the city, and London became an important trading hub.
### 5th century: end of Roman rule to 12th century
After the decline of the Roman Empire, few people remained in London. The Anglo-Saxon people of sub-Roman Britain were mainly agricultural. Once the Romans had gone, trade with Continental Europe got less. In the 9th century, more people started living in London again. It became the largest city in England. However, it did not become the capital city of England again until the 12th century. For a long time after the Romans, England was not unified, and so had no capital.
### 15th/16th century
Trade grew and the East India Company was founded as a monopoly trader. London became the main North Sea port, and migrants went from England. The population rose from about 50,000 in 1530 to about 225,000 in 1605.
The 16th century was a time of great change in the monarchy and the Church. The Church became the Church of England. The Scottish Church stayed loyal to Rome and Catholicism. In England the Bible had already been translated. This meant ordinary people could know for the first time what the Bible actually said. Before that a congregation had to accept what their preacher said. Elizabeth I was the main driver of these changes.
### 17th century
The 17th century saw Londoners suffer from the plague and the fire of London. The century starts with the famous Gunpowder Plot.
In the 17th century the Stuart kings ruled: James I and Charles I. Charles Stuart was defeated by Cromwell, so the century was remarkable in that respect. Cromwell marks the beginning of the modern system whereby Parliament is more important than the monarch. The war between Cromwell and Charles was bitterly fought. London was the key city, and Oxford was also important.
The century also had two great disasters: the Great Plague and the Great Fire of London. The control of London by Cromwell and Parliament was one of the decisive factors in the civil war. Cromwell's victory was followed by his death in 1658, and the country for a time moved back to royal rule under Charles II.
The plague virus, carried by fleas on rats, came to Britain from Europe.
The Great Fire of London broke out at the beginning of September 1666. Unfortunately there were warehouses full of timber, pitch, tallow, wine and tar. These caught fire and, in the end, all the riverfront buildings were destroyed. The fire eventually destroyed about 60% of the city, (mainly the City of London, rather than the large city we have today). Old St Paul's Cathedral was destroyed. Some fires burnt more widely, up to present-day Southwark and even Highgate.
## Modern era
Another famous old part of Greater London is Westminster, which was a different city from the City of London. In Westminster is Westminster Abbey (a cathedral), the Palace of Westminster (the Houses of Parliament), and 10 Downing Street (where the Prime Minister lives).
After the railways were built, London grew much larger. Greater London has 33 boroughs (neighbourhoods) and a mayor. The old City of London is only a square mile in size but has its own Lord Mayor.
### Expansion of London
In stages, London has several times increased in size by statute in Parliament. The main motive for this has been taxation, and the increase in houses in what was once countryside. Since taxation was paid to the counties surrounding London, there was a motive for absorbing the countryside into London. This happened in several stages.
Outside London, local taxes are paid to the County Councils; inside London they are paid to the Greater London Council. One county has been lost entirely (Middlesex) and all the others have lost land and revenue. The London Boroughs and the GLA (Greater London Authority) both raise taxes, and the representatives are elected. There is a London Plan which sets out the priorities. The number of local authorities which raise local taxes and spend it is 33: 32 London boroughs and the City of London.
### Geology
One aspect of its geology had big consequences. North of the Thames London is on chalk, which is easy (with modern equipment) to tunnel through. South of the Thames London is on clay, which was, and still is, much more difficult to dig out. So most of the subterranean engineering is north of the Thames. The road system south of the Thames is also inadequate by modern standards. This difference is reflected in the prices for property, the road transport, the Underground railway and the definition of "London" as a taxable area. The growth of London has been more vigorous North of the Thames, and has included the complete absorption of Middlesex, once a separate county.
## Events
- AD 43 Londinium is founded by the Romans.
- 61 – Londinium is sacked by Queen Boudica and the Iceni.
- 100 – Londinium becomes the capital of Roman Britain.
- 200 – The population is about 6,000.
- 410 – the end of Roman rule in Britain
- 8th century – London is captured by Vikings.
- 885 – King Alfred the Great recaptures the city and makes peace with the Viking leader Guthrum.
- 1045/50 – Westminster Abbey is rebuilt by Edward the Confessor who is buried there in January 1066.
- 1066 – William the Conqueror is crowned in Westminster Abbey.
- 1100 – The population is about 16,000.
- 1300 – The population of London has risen to 100,000.
- 1381 – the Peasants' Revolt – the first poll tax riots
- 1605 – The Gunpowder Plot is stopped.
- 1642 – The English Civil War starts.
- 1647 – London supports Cromwell's army.
- 1665 – the Great Plague of London
- 1666 – the Great Fire of London
- 1700s – the Georgian era (the time of George III)
- 1780 – the Gordon Riots
- 1900s – Canals, railways, bridges. British Empire.
- 1851 – The Great Exhibition is held at the Crystal Palace.
- 1908 – The Olympic Games take place in London.
- 1940/1941 – London was bombed by German planes during World War II: explosive and incendiary bombs. This was known as The Blitz.
- 1944/45 – London bombed by V-1 flying bomb and later the V2 rockets.
- 1948 – The Summer Olympic Games take place in London for the second time.
- 1966 – The Football World Cup final took place in London. It was won by England.
- 1990 – the Second Poll Tax Riots
- 2005 – The 7 July bombings on the London Underground and a bus. 52 people die and over 700 people are injured.
- 2012 – The Summer Olympic Games take place in London for a third time.
- 2017 – There were two terrorist attacks. The first happened in March on Westminster Bridge and Parliament Square. Five people were killed outside the Palace of Westminster, including the attacker and a police officer. 40 more people were injured. Another attack happened on London Bridge in June. Seven people were killed before the Metropolitan Police shot down the three attackers near Borough Market. The Islamic State has said they were responsible for both attacks.
- 2020 – COVID-19 did not affect London much until the Spring of 2020. From then until mid 2022, every aspect of life was affected. Government regulation of private life was almost unknown except in wartime (WWII). Many aspects of consumer activity have taken time to recover. Education of young people was interrupted, shops closed and all forms of live mass entertainment were banned.
## Landmarks
- Big Ben (Elizabeth Tower)
- Buckingham Palace
- Millennium Dome
- London Eye
- Nelson's Column in Trafalgar Square
- Tower Bridge
- London Underground
- Natural History Museum
- St. Paul's Cathedral
- Palace of Westminster
- The Shard
- Alexandra Palace
- Tower of London
## Business and economy
London has five major business districts: the City, Westminster, Canary Wharf, Camden & Islington and Lambeth & Southwark.
The London Stock Exchange is the most international stock exchange and the largest in Europe.
### Financial services
London's largest industry is finance. This includes banks, stock exchanges, investment companies and insurance companies The Bank of England is in the City of London and is the second oldest bank in the world.
### Professional services
London has many professional services such as law and accounting firms.
### Media
The British Broadcasting Company (BBC), which has many radio and TV stations, is in London.
### Tourism
Tourism is one of London's biggest industries. London is the most visited city in the world by international tourists with 18.8 million international visitors per year. Within the UK, London is home to the ten most-visited tourist attractions. Tourism employed about 350,000 full-time workers in London in 2003. Tourists spend about £15 billion per year.
### Technology
A growing number of technology companies are based in London.
### Retail
London is a major retail centre, and in 2010 had the highest non-food retail sales of any city in the world, with a total spend of around £64.2 billion. The UK's fashion industry, centred on London, contributes tens of billions to the economy.
### Manufacturing and construction
For the 19th and much of the 20th centuries London was a major manufacturing centre (see Manufacturing in London), with over 1.5 million industrial workers in 1960. Many products were made in London including ships, electronics and cars. Nowadays, most of these manufacturing companies are closed but some drug companies still make medicine in London.
## Transportation (trains, airports and underground)
The city has a huge network of transport systems including trains, underground (metro) and five main airports.
The Victorians built many train systems in the mid-19th century (1850s). Their main stations are in London, and the lines go to every part of Great Britain. There were originally five major companies but the five companies became a national rail network in modern times. Their terminals at King's Cross, St. Pancras, Paddington, Waterloo and Charing Cross are still used as terminals.
There are five airports, though only one is actually in London (London City Airport). The most used airport is Heathrow Airport, although it is actually outside the city. There is the London end of the LondonBirmingham canal, which was important to the industrial 19th century. Really heavy goods can be best transported on water by canal or sea.
The London Underground is a system of electric trains which are in London. It is the oldest underground railway in the world. It started running in 1863 as the _Metropolitan Railway_. Later, the system was copied in other cities, for example Paris, New York, Moscow and Madrid. Even though it is called the London Underground, about half of it is above the ground. The "Tube" is the name used for the London Underground, because the tunnels for some the central lines are semi-round tubes running through the ground. The Underground has 274 stations and over 250 miles (402 km) of track. Over one billion passengers used the Underground each year.
With the need for more rail capacity in London, the Elizabeth line (also known as _Crossrail_) opened in May 2022. It is a new railway line running east to west through London, with a branch to Heathrow Airport. It is Europe's biggest construction project, with a £15 billion projected cost.
There is a black taxi system regulated by the Metropolitan Police, and various other private enterprise hire car companies. Efforts are being made to make roads safer for cyclists.
## Sewage tunnel
London's biggest tunnel has just been completed to take sewage from the capital to the East where it is processed.
## Climate
London has a temperate oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification: _Cfb_). It is not usually very hot or cold. It is often cloudy.
Summers are generally warm, sometimes hot. Winters are generally cool. Spring and autumn are mild.
London has regular, light rain throughout the year. July is the warmest month, with an average temperature at Greenwich of 13.6 °C to 22.8 °C. The coldest month is January, with an average of 2.4 °C to 7.9 °C. The average annual precipitation is fairly low at 583.6 mm, and February is normally the driest month. Drought is sometimes possible, especially during longer heatwaves in summer. Snow is uncommon but usually falls at least once each winter and heavy snow is rarer and does not happen every winter. While snow is uncommon in central London itself, there is more snow in the outer areas; this is because the "urban heat island" the big city generates makes the city about 5 °C warmer than surrounding areas in winter.
Temperature extremes in London range from at Heathrow Airport on 19 July 2022 down to at Northolt on 1 January 1962.
## Twinnings
London has twin and sister city agreements with these cities:
- Sister cities:
- Berlin, Germany (since 2000)
- New York City, USA (since 2001)
- Moscow, Russia
- Beijing, China (since 2006)
- Partner cities:
- Paris, France (since 2001)
- Rome, Italy
London also has a "partnership" agreement with Tokyo, Japan.
## Other websites
- London City Government
- WorldFlicks in London: Photos and interesting places on Google Maps. .
- Events in London
## Infobox (settlement)
- **name**: London
- **image skyline**: <imagemap>
File:London Montage L.jpg
- 275px
- center
- **alt**: London montage. Clicking on an image in the picture causes the browser to load the appropriate article.
rect 217 123 282 330 Heron Tower
rect 322 123 380 330 Tower 42
rect 441 154 498 330 30 St Mary Axe
rect 505 87 572 330 Leadenhall Building
rect 638 208 699 251 Willis Building (London), Willis Building
rect 596 251 715 332 Lloyds Building
rect 740 217 851 275 Canary Wharf
rect 888 168 940 330 20 Fenchurch Street
rect 0 330 1200 450 City of London
rect 0 460 330 1420 London Underground
rect 330 460 622 1420 Elizabeth Tower
rect 632 460 1200 951 Trafalgar Square
rect 632 961 1200 1420 London Eye
rect 0 1429 1200 1765 Tower Bridge
rect 0 1765 1200 1809 River Thames
</imagemap>
- **settlement type**: Capital city
- **image caption**: Clockwise from top: City of London in the foreground with Canary Wharf in the far background, Trafalgar Square, London Eye, Tower Bridge and a London Underground roundel in front of Big Ben, Elizabeth Tower
- **pushpin map caption**: Position in the United Kingdom##Location in Europe##Location on Earth
- **pushpin relief**: 1
- **pushpin map**: UK#Europe#Earth
- **subdivision type**: List of sovereign states, Sovereign state
- **subdivision name**: United Kingdom
- **subdivision type2**: Regions of England, Region
- **subdivision type3**: Counties of England, Counties
- **subdivision name1**: England
- **subdivision name2**: Greater London, London (coterminous)
- **subdivision name3**: Greater London
City of London
- **established title**: Settled by Roman Empire, Romans
- **established date**: AD 47
_as Londinium_
- **parts type**: Districts of England, Districts
- **parts**: City of London & London borough#List of boroughs, 32 boroughs
- **government type**: Directly elected mayors in England and Wales, Executive mayoralty and deliberative assembly within unitary state, unitary constitutional monarchy
- **governing body**: Greater London Authority
**• **Mayor of London, Mayor Sadiq Khan (London Labour Party, L)
**• **London Assembly
- **total type**: Total
- **area total km2**: 1572
- **area metro km2**: 8382
- **area urban km2**: 1737.9
- **area blank1 title**: City of London
- **area blank1 km2**: 2.90
- **area blank2 title**: Greater London
- **area blank2 km2**: 1569
- **elevation m**: 11
- **population total**: 8,908,081
- **population as of**: 2018
- **population density km2**: 5,666
- **population blank1 title**: City of London
- **population blank1**: 8,706 (List of cities in the United Kingdom, 67th)
- **population blank2 title**: Greater London
- **population blank2**: 9,002,488
- **population urban**: 9,950,000
- **population metro**: 14,257,962 (List of metropolitan areas in the United Kingdom, 1st)
- **population demonyms**: Londoner
- **demographics type1**: GVA
- **demographics1 title1**: Total
- **demographics1 info1**: GBP, £487 billion
($ billion)
- **demographics1 title2**: Per capita
- **demographics1 info2**: GBP, £54,686
($)
- **blank3 name**: Human Development Index, HDI (2017)
- **blank3 info**: 0.965 – <span style="color:#090;">very high</span>
- **postal code type**: Postcodes in the United Kingdom, Postcode areas
- **leader title**: London Assembly
- **leader name**: London Assembly constituencies, 14 constituencies
- **leader title1**: Parliament of the United Kingdom, UK Parliament
- **leader name1**: List of Parliamentary constituencies in London, 73 constituencies
- **timezone**: Greenwich Mean Time
- **utc offset**: ±00:00UTC
- **timezone dst**: British Summer Time
- **utc offset dst**: +1
- **blank name sec1**: Police in the United Kingdom, Police
- **blank info sec1**: City of London Police, City of London
Metropolitan Police Service, Metropolitan
- **blank1 name sec1**: Fire services in the United Kingdom, Fire and rescue
- **blank1 info sec1**: London Fire Brigade, London
- **blank2 name sec1**: Ambulance service, Ambulance
- **blank2 info sec1**: London Ambulance Service, London
- **blank3 name sec1**: Airports of London, Airports
- **blank3 info sec1**: London Heathrow Airport, Heathrow (International Air Transport Association airport code, LHR)
London City Airport, City (International Air Transport Association airport code, LCY)
Outside London:
Gatwick Airport, Gatwick (International Air Transport Association airport code, LGW)
London Stansted Airport, Stansted (International Air Transport Association airport code, STN)
Luton Airport, Luton (International Air Transport Association airport code, LTN)
London Southend Airport, Southend (International Air Transport Association airport code, SEN)
- **blank name sec2**: GeoTLD
- **blank info sec2**: .london
- **website**: [https://london.gov.uk/ london.gov.uk] | high | false | false |
461 | Litre | The **litre** ([international spelling](3222)) or **liter** (American spelling) (symbol: **l** or **L**) is one of the [metric units](308437) of [volume](895). It is not a basic [SI unit](3222), but it is a supplementary unit.
One litre is the volume of 1000 cubic [centimetre](9092)s, that is a [cube](180) of 10 × 10 × 10 [centimetre](9092)s (1000 cm<sup>3</sup>). One litre of [water](939) at has the [mass](513) of exactly one [kilogram](3264). This results from the definition given in 1795, where the [gram](21343) was defined as the weight of one cubic centimetre of melting ice.
Liters are usually utilized to measure the volume of liquids, this is because the density of liquids can vary a lot. However it can be applied to solids as well, for example 1 liter of [Iron](223080) is around 7.7 kg. The [symbol](683) for litre is **l** or **L**. The script letter **ℓ** is also sometimes used.
For smaller volumes, the decilitre is used: 10 decilitres = one litre.
For smaller volumes, the centilitre is used: 100 centilitres = one litre.
For smaller volumes, the millilitre is used: 1000 millilitres = one litre.
The capital letter "L" is preferred by some people as the small "l" can look like the number one "1".
- 1 litre = 0.2200 imperial [gallon](311)s
- 1 litre = 0.2642 US gallons
- 1 imperial gallon = 4.5461 litres
- 1 US gallon = 3.7854 litres
- 1 litre = 1 dm<sup>3</sup>
## History
The metric system was first introduced in France in 1791. That system did not have its own unit of capacity or volume because volume can be measured in cubic metres. In 1793 work to make the metric system compulsory in France was started by the Temporary Commission of Republican Weights and Measures. Due to public demand, the commission said that the [cubic metre](63008) was too big for everyday use. They said that a new unit based on the old cadil should be used instead. One cadil was to be 0.001 cubic metres. This was equivalent to a [cube](180) with sides 10 cm. The _cadil_ was also known as the _pinte_ or the _litron_. The _pinte_ had been an old French unit of measure of [capacity](38956). In 1795 the definition was revised. The _cadil_ was given the name _litre_.
In 1795 the kilogram was defined to be exactly one litre of water at 4 °C. In 1799 the kilogram was redefined. The new definition said that the kilogram was the mass of the _[kilogram des archives](3264)_. In 1901 scientists measured the volume of one litre of water at 4 °C very carefully. They found that it occupied about dm<sup>3</sup>. The BIPM redefined the litre as being _exactly_ the volume of one kilogram of water at 4 °C.
In 1960 the [SI](3222) was introduced. The BIPM changed the definition of the litre back to "one dm<sup>3</sup>". The litre is not part of SI. The BIPM defined the litre as a "Non-SI unit accepted for use with the SI". This was because it is used in many countries. The BIPM said that the litre should not be used for very accurate work.
According to SI rules, the symbol for the litre should be "l". This is because the litre was not named after somebody whose name was "Litre". However the symbol "l" and the number "1" are easily confused. In 1979 the BIPM made an exception for the symbol for the litre. They said that people could use either "L" or "l" as its symbol.
In Europe, [milk](3398) is sold in one litre cartons. One litre bottle is also a popular package for soft drinks. Most alcoholic drinks are sold as 1/3 litre (0.33 l), litre (0.5 l) 3/4 litre (0.75 l) or 1 litre bottles.
## Infobox (unit)
- **name**: Litre
- **image**: CubeLitre.svg
- **caption**: **One litre** is the volume of a cube with 10 cm sides
- **standard**: International System of Units#Non-SI units accepted for use with SI, Non-SI unit accepted for use with SI
- **quantity**: Volume
- **symbol**: l or L
- **dimension**: L<sup>3</sup>:)
- **extralabel**: In SI base units:
- **extradata**: 1 l = 10<sup>−3</sup> metre, m<sup>3</sup> | The **litre** (international spelling) or **liter** (American spelling) (symbol: **l** or **L**) is one of the metric units of volume. It is not a basic SI unit, but it is a supplementary unit.
One litre is the volume of 1000 cubic centimetres, that is a cube of 10 × 10 × 10 centimetres (1000 cm<sup>3</sup>). One litre of water at has the mass of exactly one kilogram. This results from the definition given in 1795, where the gram was defined as the weight of one cubic centimetre of melting ice.
Liters are usually utilized to measure the volume of liquids, this is because the density of liquids can vary a lot. However it can be applied to solids as well, for example 1 liter of Iron is around 7.7 kg. The symbol for litre is **l** or **L**. The script letter **ℓ** is also sometimes used.
For smaller volumes, the decilitre is used: 10 decilitres = one litre.
For smaller volumes, the centilitre is used: 100 centilitres = one litre.
For smaller volumes, the millilitre is used: 1000 millilitres = one litre.
The capital letter "L" is preferred by some people as the small "l" can look like the number one "1".
- 1 litre = 0.2200 imperial gallons
- 1 litre = 0.2642 US gallons
- 1 imperial gallon = 4.5461 litres
- 1 US gallon = 3.7854 litres
- 1 litre = 1 dm<sup>3</sup>
## History
The metric system was first introduced in France in 1791. That system did not have its own unit of capacity or volume because volume can be measured in cubic metres. In 1793 work to make the metric system compulsory in France was started by the Temporary Commission of Republican Weights and Measures. Due to public demand, the commission said that the cubic metre was too big for everyday use. They said that a new unit based on the old cadil should be used instead. One cadil was to be 0.001 cubic metres. This was equivalent to a cube with sides 10 cm. The _cadil_ was also known as the _pinte_ or the _litron_. The _pinte_ had been an old French unit of measure of capacity. In 1795 the definition was revised. The _cadil_ was given the name _litre_.
In 1795 the kilogram was defined to be exactly one litre of water at 4 °C. In 1799 the kilogram was redefined. The new definition said that the kilogram was the mass of the _kilogram des archives_. In 1901 scientists measured the volume of one litre of water at 4 °C very carefully. They found that it occupied about dm<sup>3</sup>. The BIPM redefined the litre as being _exactly_ the volume of one kilogram of water at 4 °C.
In 1960 the SI was introduced. The BIPM changed the definition of the litre back to "one dm<sup>3</sup>". The litre is not part of SI. The BIPM defined the litre as a "Non-SI unit accepted for use with the SI". This was because it is used in many countries. The BIPM said that the litre should not be used for very accurate work.
According to SI rules, the symbol for the litre should be "l". This is because the litre was not named after somebody whose name was "Litre". However the symbol "l" and the number "1" are easily confused. In 1979 the BIPM made an exception for the symbol for the litre. They said that people could use either "L" or "l" as its symbol.
In Europe, milk is sold in one litre cartons. One litre bottle is also a popular package for soft drinks. Most alcoholic drinks are sold as 1/3 litre (0.33 l), litre (0.5 l) 3/4 litre (0.75 l) or 1 litre bottles.
## Infobox (unit)
- **name**: Litre
- **image**: CubeLitre.svg
- **caption**: **One litre** is the volume of a cube with 10 cm sides
- **standard**: International System of Units#Non-SI units accepted for use with SI, Non-SI unit accepted for use with SI
- **quantity**: Volume
- **symbol**: l or L
- **dimension**: L<sup>3</sup>:)
- **extralabel**: In SI base units:
- **extradata**: 1 l = 10<sup>−3</sup> metre, m<sup>3</sup> | high | false | false |
465 | Lime | **Lime** is a green fruit, and the tree [fruit](293) itself. They are [citrus](777376) fruits similar to [lemon](44590)s. Citrus fruits like limes are rich in [vitamin C](3880). [Sailor](4911)s from [Britain](105) were given lemon or lime juice to stop them falling ill with [scurvy](2091). This is how they got the [nickname](7353) _Limey_. There are several citrus trees whose fruits are called limes. They include the [key lime](60260) _Citrus aurantiifolia_, the [Persian lime](60262), the [kaffir lime](60270), and the desert lime _Citrus glauca_.
Limes are small, round and bright green. If they stay on the tree for a long time they turn yellow. Then they look like small round [lemon](44590)s.
Lime juice is used in cooking and in drinks. Lime oils are often used in perfumes, used for cleaning, and used for [aromatherapy](267600).
Lime tastes acidic and bitter. Lime juice is also made from limes.
## Different kinds of limes
- [Persian lime](60262) – This lime is most often sold in supermarkets as lime.
- [Key lime](60260) – Smaller than the Persian lime, used to mix [Cocktail](24358)s and make [pie](32248)s.
- [Kaffir lime](60270) – Very small fruits, [vegetable oil](892) from the leaves is used for [perfume](34708)s, leaves are used for cooking.
## Other websites
- http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/citrus/limes.htm | **Lime** is a green fruit, and the tree fruit itself. They are citrus fruits similar to lemons. Citrus fruits like limes are rich in vitamin C. Sailors from Britain were given lemon or lime juice to stop them falling ill with scurvy. This is how they got the nickname _Limey_. There are several citrus trees whose fruits are called limes. They include the key lime _Citrus aurantiifolia_, the Persian lime, the kaffir lime, and the desert lime _Citrus glauca_.
Limes are small, round and bright green. If they stay on the tree for a long time they turn yellow. Then they look like small round lemons.
Lime juice is used in cooking and in drinks. Lime oils are often used in perfumes, used for cleaning, and used for aromatherapy.
Lime tastes acidic and bitter. Lime juice is also made from limes.
## Different kinds of limes
- Persian lime – This lime is most often sold in supermarkets as lime.
- Key lime – Smaller than the Persian lime, used to mix Cocktails and make pies.
- Kaffir lime – Very small fruits, vegetable oil from the leaves is used for perfumes, leaves are used for cooking.
## Other websites
- http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/citrus/limes.htm | medium | false | false |
467 | Mathematics | **Mathematics** is the study of [number](528)s, [shape](7075)s, and [pattern](60470)s. The word comes from the [Greek](4606) _μάθημα_ (máthema), meaning "[science](700), [knowledge](411), or [learning](16872)", and is sometimes shortened to **math or maths**.
It is the study of:
- Numbers: including how things can be [counted](37685).
- [Structure](21702): including how things are [organized](32644), but also how they can be or could have been. This subfield is usually called [algebra](45).
- Place: where things are, and spatial arrangement, including arrangements of spaces themselves. This subfield is usually called [geometry](315).
- Change: how things become different. This subfield is usually called [analysis](23470).
Applied math is useful for solving problems in the real world. People working in [business](6642), [science](700), [engineering](2816), and [construction](63310) use mathematics.
## Problem-solving in mathematics
Mathematics solves problems by using [logic](4069). One of the main tools of logic used by mathematicians is [deduction](107867). Deduction is a special way of thinking to discover and prove new truths using old truths. To a mathematician, the reason something is true (called a proof) is just as important as the fact that it is true, and this reason is often found using deduction. Using deduction is what makes mathematical thinking different from other kinds of scientific thinking, which might rely on [experiment](224)s or on [interview](45274)s.
Logic and reasoning are used by mathematicians to create general [rule](12655)s, which are an important part of mathematics. These rules leave out [information](3609) that is not important so that a single rule can cover many situations. By finding general rules, mathematics solves many problems at the same time as these rules can be used on other problems. These rules can be called [theorem](21678)s (if they have been proven) or [conjecture](82811)s (if it is not known if they are true yet). Most mathematicians use non-logical and creative reasoning in order to find a logical proof.
Sometimes, mathematics finds and studies rules or ideas that we don't understand yet. Often in mathematics, ideas and rules are [chosen](38290) because they are considered simple or neat. On the other hand, sometimes these ideas and rules are found in the real world after they are studied in mathematics; this has happened many times in the past. In general, studying the rules and ideas of mathematics can help us [understand](411) the world better. Some examples of math problems are addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, calculus, fractions and decimals. [Algebra](45) problems are solved by evaluating certain [variable](8460)s. A [calculator](193867) answers every math problem in the four basic [arithmetic](21) operations.
### Number
- Mathematics includes the study of numbers and quantities. It is a branch of science that deals with the logic of shape, quantity, and arrangement. Most of the areas listed below are studied in many different fields of mathematics, including [set theory](24068) and [mathematical logic](533307). The study of [number theory](22857) usually focuses more on the structure and behavior of the integers rather than on the actual foundations of numbers themselves, and so is not listed in this given subsection.
- {| style="border:1px solid #999; text-align:center;" cellspacing="20"
| || || || ||
|-
| [Natural number](7437)s || [Integer](7436)s || [Rational number](12810)s || [Real number](18196)s || [Complex number](19943)s
|-
|| || || || ||
|-
|| [Ordinal number](4973)s || [Cardinal number](8415)s || [Arithmetic operations](21) || [Arithmetic relations](21) || [Functions](15006), see also [special functions](786596)
|}
### Structure
- Structural mathematics studies objects' and constructions' shape and integrity. These are areas of [algebra](45) and [calculus](161).
- {| style="border:3px solid #999; text-align:center;" cellspacing="30"
| || || || ||
|-
| [Number theory](22857) || [Abstract algebra](46328) || [Linear algebra](459) || [Order theory](167608) || [Graph theory](316)
|}
### Shape
- Some areas of mathematics study the shapes of things. Most of these areas are part of the study of [geometry](315).
- {| style="border:1px solid #999; text-align:center;" cellspacing="20"
| || || || ||
|-
| [Topology](3011) || [Geometry](315) || [Trigonometry](12436) || [Differential geometry](317831) || Fractal geometry
|}
### Change
- Some areas of mathematics study the way things change. Most of these areas are part of the study of [analysis](23470).
- {| style="border:1px solid #999; text-align:center;" cellspacing="40"
| || ||
|-
| [Calculus](161) || [Vector calculus](303047) || [Analysis](23470)
|-
|| || ||
|-
|| [Differential equation](61010)s || [Dynamical systems](321295) || [Chaos theory](16522)
|}
### Applied mathematics
- [Applied math](131378) uses symbolic logic to solve problems in areas like [engineering](2816) and [physics](591).
- [Numerical analysis](334165) – Optimization – [Probability theory](63537) – [Statistics](789) – [Mathematical finance](45825) – [Game theory](21513) – [Mathematical physics](194797) – [Fluid dynamics](12680) - Computational algorithms
## Famous theorems
These [theorem](21678)s and [conjecture](82811)s have interested mathematicians and amateurs alike:
- [Pythagorean theorem](6327) – FLT – [Goldbach's conjecture](82952) – [Twin Prime Conjecture](34437) – [Gödel's incompleteness theorems](163808) – [Poincaré conjecture](169214) – [Cantor's diagonal argument](551339) – [Four color theorem](21677) – Zorn's lemma – [Euler's Identity](35753) – Church-Turing thesis
These theorems and [hypotheses](61817) have greatly changed mathematics:
- [Central limit theorem](307919) classification theorems of surfaces – [Continuum hypothesis](237980) – Fourier Theorem – [Fundamental theorem of calculus](261024) – [Fundamental theorem of algebra](64535) – [Fundamental theorem of arithmetic](20663) – Fundamental theorem of projective geometry – [Gauss-Bonnet theorem](403804) - [Kantorovich theorem](750449) – P Versus NP – [Pythagorean theorem](6327) – [Riemann hypothesis](169043)
These are a few conjectures that have been called "revolutionary":
- [Beal Conjecture](918751) (a generalization of FLT) – [Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer Conjecture](944731) – [Collatz Conjecture](323041) – [Goldbach's Conjecture](82952) –[Hodge Conjecture](918756) – [Poincaré Conjecture](169214)
## Foundations and methods
- [Set theory](24068) – Symbolic logic – Model theory – [Category theory](275809) – [Logic](4069) – Table of mathematical symbols
### History and the world of mathematicians
- [History of mathematics](384314) – Timeline of mathematics – [Mathematician](14844)s – [Fields medal](38008) – [Abel Prize](637923) – [Millennium Prize Problems (Clay Math Prize)](613952) – International Mathematical Union – Mathematics competitions – [Lateral thinking](129996) – Mathematics and gender
## Awards in mathematics
There is no [Nobel Prize](6494) in mathematics. Mathematicians can receive the [Abel Prize](637923) and the [Fields Medal](38008) for important works.
The [Clay Mathematics Institute](321421) has said it will give one million dollars to anyone who solves one of the [Millennium Prize Problems](613952).
## Mathematical tools
There are many tools used to do math or find answers to math problems.
- Older tools
- [Abacus](17508)
- Napier's bones, [Slide rule](158508)
- [Ruler](35670) and [Compass](82953)
- [Mental calculation](93453)
- [Writing](3681)
- Newer tools
- [Graphing calculator](530614)s, scientific calculators and more complex [computer](112) visual tools
- [Programming language](6362)s
- [Computer algebra system](233141)s (listing) and automated [matrix](5398) analysis
- [statistics](789) [software](1987) (for example [SPSS](1130337))
- SAS (programming language)
- [R (programming language)](774203)
## Related pages
- [Timeline of women in mathematics](750587)
- [American Mathematical Society](196957)
- [Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics](749062)
- [EASIAM](749247)
- [International Congress on Industrial and Applied Mathematics](774917)
- [International Congress of Mathematicians](775146)
- [International Mathematical Olympiad](101397)
- [Mathematics Genealogy Project](750688)
- [Mathematics Subject Classification](196955)
## Other websites
- Mathematics Citizendium | **Mathematics** is the study of numbers, shapes, and patterns. The word comes from the Greek _μάθημα_ (máthema), meaning "science, knowledge, or learning", and is sometimes shortened to **math or maths**.
It is the study of:
- Numbers: including how things can be counted.
- Structure: including how things are organized, but also how they can be or could have been. This subfield is usually called algebra.
- Place: where things are, and spatial arrangement, including arrangements of spaces themselves. This subfield is usually called geometry.
- Change: how things become different. This subfield is usually called analysis.
Applied math is useful for solving problems in the real world. People working in business, science, engineering, and construction use mathematics.
## Problem-solving in mathematics
Mathematics solves problems by using logic. One of the main tools of logic used by mathematicians is deduction. Deduction is a special way of thinking to discover and prove new truths using old truths. To a mathematician, the reason something is true (called a proof) is just as important as the fact that it is true, and this reason is often found using deduction. Using deduction is what makes mathematical thinking different from other kinds of scientific thinking, which might rely on experiments or on interviews.
Logic and reasoning are used by mathematicians to create general rules, which are an important part of mathematics. These rules leave out information that is not important so that a single rule can cover many situations. By finding general rules, mathematics solves many problems at the same time as these rules can be used on other problems. These rules can be called theorems (if they have been proven) or conjectures (if it is not known if they are true yet). Most mathematicians use non-logical and creative reasoning in order to find a logical proof.
Sometimes, mathematics finds and studies rules or ideas that we don't understand yet. Often in mathematics, ideas and rules are chosen because they are considered simple or neat. On the other hand, sometimes these ideas and rules are found in the real world after they are studied in mathematics; this has happened many times in the past. In general, studying the rules and ideas of mathematics can help us understand the world better. Some examples of math problems are addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, calculus, fractions and decimals. Algebra problems are solved by evaluating certain variables. A calculator answers every math problem in the four basic arithmetic operations.
### Number
- Mathematics includes the study of numbers and quantities. It is a branch of science that deals with the logic of shape, quantity, and arrangement. Most of the areas listed below are studied in many different fields of mathematics, including set theory and mathematical logic. The study of number theory usually focuses more on the structure and behavior of the integers rather than on the actual foundations of numbers themselves, and so is not listed in this given subsection.
- {| style="border:1px solid #999; text-align:center;" cellspacing="20"
| || || || ||
|-
| Natural numbers || Integers || Rational numbers || Real numbers || Complex numbers
|-
|| || || || ||
|-
|| Ordinal numbers || Cardinal numbers || Arithmetic operations || Arithmetic relations || Functions, see also special functions
|}
### Structure
- Structural mathematics studies objects' and constructions' shape and integrity. These are areas of algebra and calculus.
- {| style="border:3px solid #999; text-align:center;" cellspacing="30"
| || || || ||
|-
| Number theory || Abstract algebra || Linear algebra || Order theory || Graph theory
|}
### Shape
- Some areas of mathematics study the shapes of things. Most of these areas are part of the study of geometry.
- {| style="border:1px solid #999; text-align:center;" cellspacing="20"
| || || || ||
|-
| Topology || Geometry || Trigonometry || Differential geometry || Fractal geometry
|}
### Change
- Some areas of mathematics study the way things change. Most of these areas are part of the study of analysis.
- {| style="border:1px solid #999; text-align:center;" cellspacing="40"
| || ||
|-
| Calculus || Vector calculus || Analysis
|-
|| || ||
|-
|| Differential equations || Dynamical systems || Chaos theory
|}
### Applied mathematics
- Applied math uses symbolic logic to solve problems in areas like engineering and physics.
- Numerical analysis – Optimization – Probability theory – Statistics – Mathematical finance – Game theory – Mathematical physics – Fluid dynamics - Computational algorithms
## Famous theorems
These theorems and conjectures have interested mathematicians and amateurs alike:
- Pythagorean theorem – FLT – Goldbach's conjecture – Twin Prime Conjecture – Gödel's incompleteness theorems – Poincaré conjecture – Cantor's diagonal argument – Four color theorem – Zorn's lemma – Euler's Identity – Church-Turing thesis
These theorems and hypotheses have greatly changed mathematics:
- Central limit theorem classification theorems of surfaces – Continuum hypothesis – Fourier Theorem – Fundamental theorem of calculus – Fundamental theorem of algebra – Fundamental theorem of arithmetic – Fundamental theorem of projective geometry – Gauss-Bonnet theorem - Kantorovich theorem – P Versus NP – Pythagorean theorem – Riemann hypothesis
These are a few conjectures that have been called "revolutionary":
- Beal Conjecture (a generalization of FLT) – Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer Conjecture – Collatz Conjecture – Goldbach's Conjecture –Hodge Conjecture – Poincaré Conjecture
## Foundations and methods
- Set theory – Symbolic logic – Model theory – Category theory – Logic – Table of mathematical symbols
### History and the world of mathematicians
- History of mathematics – Timeline of mathematics – Mathematicians – Fields medal – Abel Prize – Millennium Prize Problems (Clay Math Prize) – International Mathematical Union – Mathematics competitions – Lateral thinking – Mathematics and gender
## Awards in mathematics
There is no Nobel Prize in mathematics. Mathematicians can receive the Abel Prize and the Fields Medal for important works.
The Clay Mathematics Institute has said it will give one million dollars to anyone who solves one of the Millennium Prize Problems.
## Mathematical tools
There are many tools used to do math or find answers to math problems.
- Older tools
- Abacus
- Napier's bones, Slide rule
- Ruler and Compass
- Mental calculation
- Writing
- Newer tools
- Graphing calculators, scientific calculators and more complex computer visual tools
- Programming languages
- Computer algebra systems (listing) and automated matrix analysis
- statistics software (for example SPSS)
- SAS (programming language)
- R (programming language)
## Related pages
- Timeline of women in mathematics
- American Mathematical Society
- Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics
- EASIAM
- International Congress on Industrial and Applied Mathematics
- International Congress of Mathematicians
- International Mathematical Olympiad
- Mathematics Genealogy Project
- Mathematics Subject Classification
## Other websites
- Mathematics Citizendium | high | false | false |
468 | March | **March** (Mar.) is the third [month](3641) of the [year](944) in the [Gregorian calendar](12159), coming between [February](262) and [April](1). It has 31 days. March is named after [Mars](4707), the [Roman god](26885) of war.
March always begins on the same day of the week as [November](530), and additionally, [February](262) in [common year](3974)s. March always ends on the same day of the week as [June](401).
## The month
In [ancient Rome](664), March was called Martius. It was named after the war god ([Mars](4707)) and the Romans thought that it was a lucky time to begin a war. Before [Julius Caesar](5940)'s [calendar](7517) reform, March was the first month of the year in the Roman calendar, as the [winter](6643) was considered to be a monthless period. It is one of seven months to have 31 days.
March begins on the same day of the week as [February](262) in [common year](3974)s and [November](530) every year, as each other's first days are exactly 4 weeks (28 days) and 35 weeks (245 days) apart respectively. March ends on the same day of the week as [June](401) every year, as each other's last days are exactly 13 weeks (91 days) apart.
In [common year](3974)s, March starts on the same day of the week as [June](401) of the previous year, and in [leap year](434)s, [September](684) and [December](185) of the previous year. In common years, March finishes on the same day of the week as September of the previous year, and in leap years, [April](1) and December of the previous year.
In years immediately before common years, March starts on the same day of the week as [August](2) of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, [May](469) of the following year. In years immediately before common years, March finishes on the same day of the week as August and November of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, May of the following year.
In leap years, the day before [March 1](9860) is [February 29](10114). This determines the position of each day of the year from there on. As an example, [March 1](9860) is usually the 60th day of the year, but in a leap year is the 61st day.
In terms of [season](6276)s, March is one of two months to have an [equinox](21284) (the other is [September](684), its seasonal equivalent in both [hemisphere](31981)s), with daylight and darkness of roughly the same number of hours, halfway between the [December](185) and [June](401) [solstice](16611)s. In the [Northern Hemisphere](6829), [spring](16382) starts in this month, while it is [autumn](18860) in the [Southern Hemisphere](12161).
## Start of the season
The official start of either season is [March 1](9860), though the [equinox](21284) can fall on [March 20](8759) or [21](7545), occasionally on [March 19](9868). The northern spring equinox marks the start of the [Iran](3772)ian [New Year](59249) and Baha'i [New Year](59249). It is from the [March 21](7545) date that [Easter](14981)'s date is calculated, on the Sunday after the first [full moon](75765) in spring, meaning it can fall between [March 22](7825) and [April 25](9878) in Western [Christianity](219595).
### Fixed events
- [March 1](9860) – [Saint David's Day](385369) ([Wales](3048))
- [March 1](9860) – March 1st Movement [Memorial Day](30837) ([South Korea](5073))
- [March 1](9860) – [Beer](2020) Day ([Iceland](2979))
- [March 1](9860) – Independence Day ([Bosnia and Herzegovina](20289))
- [March 2](9861) – Independence Day ([Morocco](15294))
- [March 2](9861) – [Texas](5324) Independence Day
- [March 2](9861) – jana day ([Algeria](5404))
- [March 2](9861) – Peasants Day (Burma)
- [March 3](8528) – [Hinamatsuri](275763), [Girl](64871)s' Day ([Japan](403))
- [March 3](8528) – Liberation Day ([Bulgaria](15937))
- [March 3](8528) – Mother's Day ([Georgia](14986))
- [March 3](8528) – Sportsmen's Day ([Egypt](248))
- [March 3](8528) – Martyrs' Day ([Malawi](18312))
- [March 4](8428) – Saint Casimir's Day ([Poland](3045) and [Lithuania](4099))
- [March 5](8717) – Custom Chief's Day ([Vanuatu](10489))
- [March 5](8717) – Lei Feng Day ([China](120))
- [March 5](8717) – National Tree Planting Day ([Iran](3772))
- [March 5](8717) – Saint Piran's Day ([Cornwall](5227))
- [March 6](7453) – Independence Day ([Ghana](12447))
- [March 6](7453) – Alamo Day ([Texas](5324))
- [March 6](7453) – Foundation Day ([Norfolk Island](30213))
- [March 7](8378) – Felicity and Perpetua (Roman Catholicism)
- [March 7](8378) – Teachers' Day ([Albania](3461))
- [March 8](8648) – [International Women's Day](9706)
- [March 9](9862) – Teachers' Day ([Lebanon](7615))
- [March 10](9863) – [Tibet](35288)an Uprising Day (Supporters of [Tibet](35288)an Independence)
- [March 11](9873) – Re-establishment of Independence ([Lithuania](4099))
- [March 11](9873) – Moshoeshoe Day ([Lesotho](14546))
- [March 11](9873) – [Johnny Appleseed](8024) Day ([United States](219587))
- [March 12](9872) – National Day of [Mauritius](19287)
- [March 12](9872) – Youth Day ([Zambia](15643))
- [March 14](9870) – [Pi Day](233146)
- [March 14](9870) – Mother Tongue Day ([Estonia](4096))
- [March 14](9870) – White Day ([Japan](403) and [Korea](2159))
- [March 15](9869) – The _[Ides of March](699834)_, and the assassination of [Julius Caesar](5940).
- [March 15](9869) – National Day of [Hungary](3462)
- [March 15](9869) – Holiday in [Liberia](12333), celebrating its first [President](4044), Joseph Jenkins Roberts
- [March 15](9869) – Honen Matsuri ([Japan](403))
- [March 16](9532) – Saint Urho's Day ([Finnish](292) Communities in [Canada](219589) and the [US](720016))
- [March 16](9532) – [Latvia](4098)n Legion Day
- [March 16](9532) – Day of the [Book](3686) Smugglers ([Lithuania](4099))
- [March 17](5586) – [Saint Patrick's Day](12814), celebrating [Saint Patrick](5584), the patron saint of [Ireland](361)
- [March 19](9868) – Saint Joseph's Day (Roman Catholicism)
- [March 19](9868) – Unity Day ([Kashubia](963988), northern [Poland](3045))
- [March 20](8759)/[21](7545) – [Equinox](21284), northern [Spring](16382), southern [Autumn](18860)
- [March 20](8759)/[21](7545) – [Iran](3772)ian [New Year](59249)
- [March 20](8759) – Independence Day ([Tunisia](7472))
- [March 20](8759) – [Francophone](3597) Day
- [March 21](7545) – Baha'i [New Year](59249)
- [March 21](7545) – Independence Day ([Namibia](8250))
- [March 21](7545) – Benito Juarez' [Birthday](22419) ([Mexico](1935))
- [March 21](7545) – World [Poetry](3886) Day
- [March 21](7545) – Youth Day ([Tunisia](7472))
- [March 21](7545) – Harmony Day ([Australia](27))
- [March 21](7545) – Human Rights Day ([South Africa](3528))
- [March 21](7545) – World [Down syndrome](33361) Day
- [March 22](7825) – World [Water](939) Day
- [March 22](7825) – Emancipation Day ([Puerto Rico](12383))
- [March 22](7825) – Day of the People's Party ([Laos](5789))
- [March 23](9867) – [Republic](4978) Day ([Pakistan](5071))
- [March 23](9867) – Polish-Hungarian Friendship Day
- [March 23](9867) – Family Day ([South Africa](3528))
- [March 24](8722) – World [Tuberculosis](4760) Day
- [March 24](8722) – Day of Remembrance for Truth and Justice ([Argentina](54))
- [March 25](9866) – Independence Day ([Greece](2133))
- [March 25](9866) – [Maryland](12344) Day
- [March 25](9866) – Mother's Day ([Slovenia](3468))
- [March 25](9866) – Annunciation of the Blessed Virgin Mary (Roman Catholicism), also known as Lady Day, old New Year in some European countries
- [March 26](8758) – Independence Day ([Bangladesh](15790))
- [March 26](8758) – Prince Kuhio Day ([Hawaii](332))
- [March 26](8758) – Prophet Zoroaster's Birthday ([Zoroastrianism](7305))
- [March 26](8758) – Day of Democracy ([Mali](19308))
- [March 28](5131) – Serfs Emancipation Day ([Tibet](35288))
- [March 28](5131) – Teachers' Day ([Czech Republic](6439) and [Slovakia](3467))
- [March 29](8733) – Boganda Day ([Central African Republic](12334))
- [March 29](8733) – Youth Day (Republic of China)
- [March 31](9036) – Cesar Chavez Day ([United States](219587))
- [March 31](9036) – Freedom Day ([Malta](4100))
### Moveable events
- On a [Sunday](3837) between [March 1](9860) and [April 4](5156), _[Mother's Day](332593)_ is celebrated in the UK.
- [Lent](222669) and [Easter](14981)-related observances in Western [Christianity](219595).
- Shrove Monday – between [February 2](7789) and [March 8](8648)
- Shrove Tuesday ([Pancake](39585) Day) – between [February 3](6610) and [March 9](9862)
- Ash Wednesday, start of [Lent](222669); between [February 4](8921) and [March 10](9863)
- [Palm Sunday](168069), start of Holy Week; between [March 15](9869) and [April 18](9882)
- Maundy Thursday – between [March 19](9868) and [April 22](9884)
- Good Friday – between [March 20](8759) and [April 23](7862)
- [Easter](14981) occurs on a [Sunday](3935) between [March 22](7825) and [April 25](9878) (note: In Eastern [Christianity](219595), [Easter](14981) falls between [April 4](5156) and [May 8](9518)).
- Easter Monday – between [March 23](9867) and [April 26](9879)
- [Jewish](219593) [Passover](287631) coincides with Christian Holy Week, earliest run is [March 15](9869) to [March 22](7825), latest run is [April 18](9882) to [April 25](9878).
- [Commonwealth](31668) Day (second Monday in March)
- [Canberra](4742) Day (Second Monday in March)
- [Daylight Saving Time](42899)
- [Canada](219589) and the [United States](219587) start [Daylight Saving Time](42899) on the second Sunday in March. Clocks go forward one hour.
- [Europe](216)an [Summer](3640) Time begins on the last Sunday in March. Clocks go forward one hour.
- The Winter Paralympics are often held in this month.
- Six Nations – [rugby union](70537) tournament running from early [February](262) to mid-March, competing countries are [England](3047), [France](291), [Ireland](361), [Italy](363), [Scotland](3049) and [Wales](3048)
- Start of the [Formula One](21161) motor racing season
## Selection of historical events
- [March 1](9860), [1872](7735) – [Yellowstone National Park](50617) becomes the world's first national park.
- [March 1](9860), [1910](15082) – An [avalanche](22671) buries a [train](173894) in northeastern King County, Washington.
- [March 1](9860), [1919](10181) – The March 1st Movement begins in [Korea](2159).
- [March 1](9860), [1936](8715) – The [Hoover Dam](82068) is completed.
- [March 2](9861), [1956](8427) – [Morocco](15294) declares its independence from [France](291).
- [March 3](8528), [1845](11394) – [Florida](4015) becomes the 27th State of the [US](720016).
- [March 3](8528), [1925](2909) – The [Mount Rushmore](51060) monument is founded, starting work on carving four Presidents' faces into the mountain.
- [March 5](8717), [1953](7455) – Russian composer [Sergei Prokofiev](48230) and Soviet leader [Joseph Stalin](6238) die on the same day as each other.
- [March 6](7453), [1788](5153) – The first fleet of [convict](124308)s arrives at [Norfolk Island](30213).
- [March 6](7453), [1957](9559) – [Ghana](12447) becomes independent from the [United Kingdom](856).
- [March 7](8378), [1867](12522) – [Alexander Graham Bell](4579) is granted a [patent](19139) for the [telephone](6222).
- [March 7](8378), [1912](9821) – [Roald Amundsen](4634) announces that his Norwegian expedition successfully reached the [South Pole](1977) on [December 14](5164) of the previous year.
- [March 8](8648), [1911](8732) – First celebration of [International Women's Day](9706).
- [March 8](8648), [1918](9268) – The first cases of the deadly Spanish flu virus are reported.
- [March 8](8648), [2014](85663) – [Malaysia Airlines Flight 370](441920) disappears.
- [March 9](9862), [1908](11079) – A five-man team climbs to the top of [Mount Erebus](146908) in [Antarctica](1976).
- [March 9](9862), [1959](9558) – The first [Barbie](43153) [doll](113497)s are sold.
- [March 10](9863), [1906](10853) – A deadly [mining](6663) disaster in Courrieres, [France](291), kills 1,099 miners.
- [March 10](9863), [1957](9559) – [Osama bin Laden](15187) is born.
- [March 10](9863), [1977](8721) – [Astronomer](4491)s discover rings around the [planet](639) [Uranus](882).
- [March 11](9873), [1985](9265) – [Mikhail Gorbachev](7583) becomes leader of the [Soviet Union](3600).
- [March 11](9873), [1990](8905) – [Lithuania](4099) declares its independence from the [Soviet Union](3600).
- [March 11](9873), [2004](3796) – Terrorists [bomb](50504) rush-hour trains in [Madrid](473), killing 191 people.
- [March 11](9873), [2011](31950) – The 2011 Sendai earthquake and tsunami disaster kills many thousands of people in northeastern [Japan](403), after a magnitude 9.1 [earthquake](2081), [tsunami](259144)s, and a nuclear disaster at Fukushima.
- [March 12](9872), [1913](7829) – [Canberra](4742) is officially named.
- [March 12](9872), [1930](9853) – [Mahatma Gandhi](3576) begins his Salt March, as part of the movement for [India](391)n independence.
- [March 12](9872), [1968](8340) – [Mauritius](19287) becomes independent.
- [March 13](9871), [1781](17514) – [William Herschel](109181) discovers the [planet](639) [Uranus](882).
- [March 13](9871), [1881](16302) – [Tsar](19646) [Alexander II of Russia](809077) is murdered when a [bomb](50504) is thrown at his carriage.
- [March 13](9871), [2013](34906) – [Pope Francis](389278) is chosen as [Pope](4681). Coming from [Argentina](54), he is the first [Latin America](7170)n [Pope](4681).
- [March 14](9870), [1879](4659) – [Albert Einstein](2138) is born.
- [March 14](9870), [1883](15050) – [Karl Marx](4473) dies at the age of 64 years.
- [March 14](9870), [2018](188997) – [Stephen Hawking](6437) dies.
- [March 15](9869), [44 BC](59677) – [Julius Caesar](5940) is murdered on the Ides of March.
- [March 15](9869), [1820](7456) – At the easternmost tip of the [US](720016), [Maine](10523) becomes the 23rd State.
- [March 15](9869), [1848](10599) – [Revolution](40652) in Pest, [Hungary](3462).
- [March 15](9869), [2019](188998) – A terrorist shooting occurs in [Christchurch](64145), killing 49 Muslims.
- [March 17](5586), [1861](16534) – [Italy](363) becomes a [Kingdom](9597), making Italy a unified state.
- [March 17](5586), [1959](9558) – Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama flees to [India](391).
- [March 17](5586), [1992](3962) – A referendum in [South Africa](3528) supports the end of [Apartheid](6393).
- [March 18](8081), [1965](2983) – Aleksei Leonov performs the first spacewalk.
- [March 19](9868), [1932](7463) – [Sydney Harbour Bridge](57337) is opened.
- [March 20](8759), 526 – The 526 Antioch earthquake kills around 300,000 people in [Syria](6193) and southeastern [Turkey](2860).
- [March 20](8759), [1861](16534) – [Mendoza](92922), [Argentina](54) is destroyed by an [earthquake](2081) that kills 6,000 people.
- [March 20](8759), [1956](8427) – [Tunisia](7472) becomes independent.
- [March 20](8759), [1995](3959) – The [Aum Shinrikyo](177564) [cult](22511) carries out a deadly sarin [gas](3283) attack on the [Tokyo](4329) subway.
- [March 20](8759), [2003](3954) – [Iraq War](58496) starts.
- [March 21](7545), [1844](4655) – Start of the Baha'i [calendar](7517).
- [March 21](7545), [1960](8426) – Sharpeville massacre: [Police](642) open fire on demonstrators in [South Africa](3528), killing 69 people.
- [March 21](7545), [1990](8905) – [Namibia](8250) becomes independent.
- [March 21](7545), [2006](3965) – [Twitter](207756) is founded.
- [March 22](7825), [1818](17301) – Most recent occurrence of [Easter](14981) on its earliest possible date.
- [March 22](7825), [1957](9559) – The [Arab League](17447) is founded.
- [March 22](7825), [1997](3957) – Comet Hale-Bopp makes its closest approach to [Earth](219).
- [March 23](9867), [1956](8427) – [Pakistan](5071) becomes an [Islam](219592)ic [Republic](4978).
- [March 24](8722), [1603](5147) – Queen Elizabeth I of England dies aged 69, without children. James VI of Scotland becomes James I of England.
- [March 24](8722), [1989](3967) – The Exxon Valdez [oil](578) tanker runs aground at Prince William Sound in [Alaska](3361), causing a devastating [oil](578) spill.
- [March 25](9866), [1655](33705) – [Christiaan Huygens](65840) discovers [Saturn](802)'s moon [Titan](24265).
- [March 25](9866), [1821](11186) – [Greece](2133) declares its independence from the [Ottoman Empire](16844).
- [March 25](9866), [1957](9559) – The [European Economic Community](2132) is founded.
- [March 26](8758), [1830](16852) – The [Book of Mormon](39315) is published in Palmyra, [New York](7469).
- [March 26](8758), [1971](9117) – [Bangladesh](15790)'s war of Independence starts.
- [March 26](8758), [1997](3957) – Members of the [Heaven's Gate](41778) cult commit mass [suicide](10277).
- [March 27](9865), [1964](9255) – The Good Friday [earthquake](2081) strikes south-central [Alaska](3361).
- [March 28](5131), [1939](7949) – [Spanish Civil War](24971): [Francisco Franco](15526) conquers [Madrid](473).
- [March 29](8733), [1792](11200) – King [Gustav III of Sweden](474205) dies as a result of being shot at a masquerade ball.
- [March 30](9864), [1867](12522) – [United States Secretary of State](135815) agrees to purchase [Alaska](3361) from [Russia](2964) for $7.2 million.
- [March 30](9864), [1981](5168) – John Hinckley shoots at [Ronald Reagan](4546) in an attempt to kill him.
- [March 31](9036), [1889](16034) – The [Eiffel Tower](5246) is opened to the public.
- [March 31](9036), [1968](8340) – US President [Lyndon B. Johnson](10747) announces that he intends not to run for re-election.
- [March 31](9036), [1995](3959) – American singer [Selena](224613) is [shot and killed](309009) by her former manager and friend of her [boutique](408788)s, Yolanda Saldivar.
## Trivia
- March's flower is the daffodil.
- March's birthstones are the bloodstone and [aquamarine](18735). The meaning of the bloodstone is courage.
- The star signs for March are Pisces ([February 20](8167) to [March 20](8759)) and [Aries](67708) ([March 21](7545) to [April 20](7785)).
- March is one of two months of the year that begin with an 'M' in the [English language](2843) ([May](469) is the other). Both have an 'A' as their second letter, and they come on either side of [April](1).
- [March 1](9860) is the only day in March to start within the first sixth of the [calendar](7517) year.
- It is less common for [Easter](14981) to occur in March than in [April](1). Recent occurrences in March were in [2002](3953) ([March 31](9036)), [2005](3964) ([March 27](9865)), [2008](183009) ([March 23](9867)), [2013](34906) ([March 31](9036)), [2016](188994) ([March 27](9865)) and [2024](189003) ([March 31](9036))
- March is named for [Mars](515), the [Roman](26885) [god](305) of [war](942), and is called "mars" in some languages. This is also where the [planet](639) Mars gets its name from.
## Other meanings
- A **[march](258272)** is also a type of music, originally written for and performed by [marching band](80676)s.
- March also refers to a certain way of walking.
- March is also the name of a place in [Germany](219828).
- There is an [animal](62) known as the March hare. | **March** (Mar.) is the third month of the year in the Gregorian calendar, coming between February and April. It has 31 days. March is named after Mars, the Roman god of war.
March always begins on the same day of the week as November, and additionally, February in common years. March always ends on the same day of the week as June.
## The month
In ancient Rome, March was called Martius. It was named after the war god (Mars) and the Romans thought that it was a lucky time to begin a war. Before Julius Caesar's calendar reform, March was the first month of the year in the Roman calendar, as the winter was considered to be a monthless period. It is one of seven months to have 31 days.
March begins on the same day of the week as February in common years and November every year, as each other's first days are exactly 4 weeks (28 days) and 35 weeks (245 days) apart respectively. March ends on the same day of the week as June every year, as each other's last days are exactly 13 weeks (91 days) apart.
In common years, March starts on the same day of the week as June of the previous year, and in leap years, September and December of the previous year. In common years, March finishes on the same day of the week as September of the previous year, and in leap years, April and December of the previous year.
In years immediately before common years, March starts on the same day of the week as August of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, May of the following year. In years immediately before common years, March finishes on the same day of the week as August and November of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, May of the following year.
In leap years, the day before March 1 is February 29. This determines the position of each day of the year from there on. As an example, March 1 is usually the 60th day of the year, but in a leap year is the 61st day.
In terms of seasons, March is one of two months to have an equinox (the other is September, its seasonal equivalent in both hemispheres), with daylight and darkness of roughly the same number of hours, halfway between the December and June solstices. In the Northern Hemisphere, spring starts in this month, while it is autumn in the Southern Hemisphere.
## Start of the season
The official start of either season is March 1, though the equinox can fall on March 20 or 21, occasionally on March 19. The northern spring equinox marks the start of the Iranian New Year and Baha'i New Year. It is from the March 21 date that Easter's date is calculated, on the Sunday after the first full moon in spring, meaning it can fall between March 22 and April 25 in Western Christianity.
### Fixed events
- March 1 – Saint David's Day (Wales)
- March 1 – March 1st Movement Memorial Day (South Korea)
- March 1 – Beer Day (Iceland)
- March 1 – Independence Day (Bosnia and Herzegovina)
- March 2 – Independence Day (Morocco)
- March 2 – Texas Independence Day
- March 2 – jana day (Algeria)
- March 2 – Peasants Day (Burma)
- March 3 – Hinamatsuri, Girls' Day (Japan)
- March 3 – Liberation Day (Bulgaria)
- March 3 – Mother's Day (Georgia)
- March 3 – Sportsmen's Day (Egypt)
- March 3 – Martyrs' Day (Malawi)
- March 4 – Saint Casimir's Day (Poland and Lithuania)
- March 5 – Custom Chief's Day (Vanuatu)
- March 5 – Lei Feng Day (China)
- March 5 – National Tree Planting Day (Iran)
- March 5 – Saint Piran's Day (Cornwall)
- March 6 – Independence Day (Ghana)
- March 6 – Alamo Day (Texas)
- March 6 – Foundation Day (Norfolk Island)
- March 7 – Felicity and Perpetua (Roman Catholicism)
- March 7 – Teachers' Day (Albania)
- March 8 – International Women's Day
- March 9 – Teachers' Day (Lebanon)
- March 10 – Tibetan Uprising Day (Supporters of Tibetan Independence)
- March 11 – Re-establishment of Independence (Lithuania)
- March 11 – Moshoeshoe Day (Lesotho)
- March 11 – Johnny Appleseed Day (United States)
- March 12 – National Day of Mauritius
- March 12 – Youth Day (Zambia)
- March 14 – Pi Day
- March 14 – Mother Tongue Day (Estonia)
- March 14 – White Day (Japan and Korea)
- March 15 – The _Ides of March_, and the assassination of Julius Caesar.
- March 15 – National Day of Hungary
- March 15 – Holiday in Liberia, celebrating its first President, Joseph Jenkins Roberts
- March 15 – Honen Matsuri (Japan)
- March 16 – Saint Urho's Day (Finnish Communities in Canada and the US)
- March 16 – Latvian Legion Day
- March 16 – Day of the Book Smugglers (Lithuania)
- March 17 – Saint Patrick's Day, celebrating Saint Patrick, the patron saint of Ireland
- March 19 – Saint Joseph's Day (Roman Catholicism)
- March 19 – Unity Day (Kashubia, northern Poland)
- March 20/21 – Equinox, northern Spring, southern Autumn
- March 20/21 – Iranian New Year
- March 20 – Independence Day (Tunisia)
- March 20 – Francophone Day
- March 21 – Baha'i New Year
- March 21 – Independence Day (Namibia)
- March 21 – Benito Juarez' Birthday (Mexico)
- March 21 – World Poetry Day
- March 21 – Youth Day (Tunisia)
- March 21 – Harmony Day (Australia)
- March 21 – Human Rights Day (South Africa)
- March 21 – World Down syndrome Day
- March 22 – World Water Day
- March 22 – Emancipation Day (Puerto Rico)
- March 22 – Day of the People's Party (Laos)
- March 23 – Republic Day (Pakistan)
- March 23 – Polish-Hungarian Friendship Day
- March 23 – Family Day (South Africa)
- March 24 – World Tuberculosis Day
- March 24 – Day of Remembrance for Truth and Justice (Argentina)
- March 25 – Independence Day (Greece)
- March 25 – Maryland Day
- March 25 – Mother's Day (Slovenia)
- March 25 – Annunciation of the Blessed Virgin Mary (Roman Catholicism), also known as Lady Day, old New Year in some European countries
- March 26 – Independence Day (Bangladesh)
- March 26 – Prince Kuhio Day (Hawaii)
- March 26 – Prophet Zoroaster's Birthday (Zoroastrianism)
- March 26 – Day of Democracy (Mali)
- March 28 – Serfs Emancipation Day (Tibet)
- March 28 – Teachers' Day (Czech Republic and Slovakia)
- March 29 – Boganda Day (Central African Republic)
- March 29 – Youth Day (Republic of China)
- March 31 – Cesar Chavez Day (United States)
- March 31 – Freedom Day (Malta)
### Moveable events
- On a Sunday between March 1 and April 4, _Mother's Day_ is celebrated in the UK.
- Lent and Easter-related observances in Western Christianity.
- Shrove Monday – between February 2 and March 8
- Shrove Tuesday (Pancake Day) – between February 3 and March 9
- Ash Wednesday, start of Lent; between February 4 and March 10
- Palm Sunday, start of Holy Week; between March 15 and April 18
- Maundy Thursday – between March 19 and April 22
- Good Friday – between March 20 and April 23
- Easter occurs on a Sunday between March 22 and April 25 (note: In Eastern Christianity, Easter falls between April 4 and May 8).
- Easter Monday – between March 23 and April 26
- Jewish Passover coincides with Christian Holy Week, earliest run is March 15 to March 22, latest run is April 18 to April 25.
- Commonwealth Day (second Monday in March)
- Canberra Day (Second Monday in March)
- Daylight Saving Time
- Canada and the United States start Daylight Saving Time on the second Sunday in March. Clocks go forward one hour.
- European Summer Time begins on the last Sunday in March. Clocks go forward one hour.
- The Winter Paralympics are often held in this month.
- Six Nations – rugby union tournament running from early February to mid-March, competing countries are England, France, Ireland, Italy, Scotland and Wales
- Start of the Formula One motor racing season
## Selection of historical events
- March 1, 1872 – Yellowstone National Park becomes the world's first national park.
- March 1, 1910 – An avalanche buries a train in northeastern King County, Washington.
- March 1, 1919 – The March 1st Movement begins in Korea.
- March 1, 1936 – The Hoover Dam is completed.
- March 2, 1956 – Morocco declares its independence from France.
- March 3, 1845 – Florida becomes the 27th State of the US.
- March 3, 1925 – The Mount Rushmore monument is founded, starting work on carving four Presidents' faces into the mountain.
- March 5, 1953 – Russian composer Sergei Prokofiev and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin die on the same day as each other.
- March 6, 1788 – The first fleet of convicts arrives at Norfolk Island.
- March 6, 1957 – Ghana becomes independent from the United Kingdom.
- March 7, 1867 – Alexander Graham Bell is granted a patent for the telephone.
- March 7, 1912 – Roald Amundsen announces that his Norwegian expedition successfully reached the South Pole on December 14 of the previous year.
- March 8, 1911 – First celebration of International Women's Day.
- March 8, 1918 – The first cases of the deadly Spanish flu virus are reported.
- March 8, 2014 – Malaysia Airlines Flight 370 disappears.
- March 9, 1908 – A five-man team climbs to the top of Mount Erebus in Antarctica.
- March 9, 1959 – The first Barbie dolls are sold.
- March 10, 1906 – A deadly mining disaster in Courrieres, France, kills 1,099 miners.
- March 10, 1957 – Osama bin Laden is born.
- March 10, 1977 – Astronomers discover rings around the planet Uranus.
- March 11, 1985 – Mikhail Gorbachev becomes leader of the Soviet Union.
- March 11, 1990 – Lithuania declares its independence from the Soviet Union.
- March 11, 2004 – Terrorists bomb rush-hour trains in Madrid, killing 191 people.
- March 11, 2011 – The 2011 Sendai earthquake and tsunami disaster kills many thousands of people in northeastern Japan, after a magnitude 9.1 earthquake, tsunamis, and a nuclear disaster at Fukushima.
- March 12, 1913 – Canberra is officially named.
- March 12, 1930 – Mahatma Gandhi begins his Salt March, as part of the movement for Indian independence.
- March 12, 1968 – Mauritius becomes independent.
- March 13, 1781 – William Herschel discovers the planet Uranus.
- March 13, 1881 – Tsar Alexander II of Russia is murdered when a bomb is thrown at his carriage.
- March 13, 2013 – Pope Francis is chosen as Pope. Coming from Argentina, he is the first Latin American Pope.
- March 14, 1879 – Albert Einstein is born.
- March 14, 1883 – Karl Marx dies at the age of 64 years.
- March 14, 2018 – Stephen Hawking dies.
- March 15, 44 BC – Julius Caesar is murdered on the Ides of March.
- March 15, 1820 – At the easternmost tip of the US, Maine becomes the 23rd State.
- March 15, 1848 – Revolution in Pest, Hungary.
- March 15, 2019 – A terrorist shooting occurs in Christchurch, killing 49 Muslims.
- March 17, 1861 – Italy becomes a Kingdom, making Italy a unified state.
- March 17, 1959 – Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama flees to India.
- March 17, 1992 – A referendum in South Africa supports the end of Apartheid.
- March 18, 1965 – Aleksei Leonov performs the first spacewalk.
- March 19, 1932 – Sydney Harbour Bridge is opened.
- March 20, 526 – The 526 Antioch earthquake kills around 300,000 people in Syria and southeastern Turkey.
- March 20, 1861 – Mendoza, Argentina is destroyed by an earthquake that kills 6,000 people.
- March 20, 1956 – Tunisia becomes independent.
- March 20, 1995 – The Aum Shinrikyo cult carries out a deadly sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway.
- March 20, 2003 – Iraq War starts.
- March 21, 1844 – Start of the Baha'i calendar.
- March 21, 1960 – Sharpeville massacre: Police open fire on demonstrators in South Africa, killing 69 people.
- March 21, 1990 – Namibia becomes independent.
- March 21, 2006 – Twitter is founded.
- March 22, 1818 – Most recent occurrence of Easter on its earliest possible date.
- March 22, 1957 – The Arab League is founded.
- March 22, 1997 – Comet Hale-Bopp makes its closest approach to Earth.
- March 23, 1956 – Pakistan becomes an Islamic Republic.
- March 24, 1603 – Queen Elizabeth I of England dies aged 69, without children. James VI of Scotland becomes James I of England.
- March 24, 1989 – The Exxon Valdez oil tanker runs aground at Prince William Sound in Alaska, causing a devastating oil spill.
- March 25, 1655 – Christiaan Huygens discovers Saturn's moon Titan.
- March 25, 1821 – Greece declares its independence from the Ottoman Empire.
- March 25, 1957 – The European Economic Community is founded.
- March 26, 1830 – The Book of Mormon is published in Palmyra, New York.
- March 26, 1971 – Bangladesh's war of Independence starts.
- March 26, 1997 – Members of the Heaven's Gate cult commit mass suicide.
- March 27, 1964 – The Good Friday earthquake strikes south-central Alaska.
- March 28, 1939 – Spanish Civil War: Francisco Franco conquers Madrid.
- March 29, 1792 – King Gustav III of Sweden dies as a result of being shot at a masquerade ball.
- March 30, 1867 – United States Secretary of State agrees to purchase Alaska from Russia for $7.2 million.
- March 30, 1981 – John Hinckley shoots at Ronald Reagan in an attempt to kill him.
- March 31, 1889 – The Eiffel Tower is opened to the public.
- March 31, 1968 – US President Lyndon B. Johnson announces that he intends not to run for re-election.
- March 31, 1995 – American singer Selena is shot and killed by her former manager and friend of her boutiques, Yolanda Saldivar.
## Trivia
- March's flower is the daffodil.
- March's birthstones are the bloodstone and aquamarine. The meaning of the bloodstone is courage.
- The star signs for March are Pisces (February 20 to March 20) and Aries (March 21 to April 20).
- March is one of two months of the year that begin with an 'M' in the English language (May is the other). Both have an 'A' as their second letter, and they come on either side of April.
- March 1 is the only day in March to start within the first sixth of the calendar year.
- It is less common for Easter to occur in March than in April. Recent occurrences in March were in 2002 (March 31), 2005 (March 27), 2008 (March 23), 2013 (March 31), 2016 (March 27) and 2024 (March 31)
- March is named for Mars, the Roman god of war, and is called "mars" in some languages. This is also where the planet Mars gets its name from.
## Other meanings
- A **march** is also a type of music, originally written for and performed by marching bands.
- March also refers to a certain way of walking.
- March is also the name of a place in Germany.
- There is an animal known as the March hare. | high | false | false |
469 | May | **May** is the fifth [month](3641) of the [year](944) in the [Julian](12158) and [Gregorian calendars](12159), coming between [April](1) and [June](401). It has 31 [day](3539)s. The month of May might have been named for the [Roman goddess](26885) [Maia](25666), or more likely the Roman [goddess](17415) of [fertility](69794) [Bona Dea](1008472), whose festival was held in May.
May never begins or ends on the same day of the week as any other month.
May's [flower](7947) is the [Lily of the Valley](405379). Its birthstone is the [emerald](64459). The meaning of the emerald is success in love.
## The Month
May comes between [April](1) and [June](401) and is the fifth month of the year in the [Gregorian calendar](12159). It is one of the seven months to have 31 days. In the older [Roman calendar](606601), May was the third month of the year. It is a [spring](16382) month in the [Northern Hemisphere](6829) and an [autumn](18860) month in the [Southern Hemisphere](12161). In each [hemisphere](31981), it is the seasonal equivalent of [November](530) in the other. May is likely to have been named after the Roman [goddess](305) [Maia](25666), though there is a theory that May might have its name from the Latin "Maiores", meaning "Seniors". The same theory suggests that [June](401) would then be named from "Iuniores", meaning "Juniors".
No other month of any year either begins or ends on the same day of the week as May: this month is the only one that has both of these properties.
In common years, May starts on the same day of the week as [August](2) of the previous year, and in leap years, [March](468) and [November](530) of the previous year. In common years, May finishes on the same day of the week as August and [November](530) of the previous year, and in leap years, March and [June](401) of the previous year. In leap years and years immediately after that, May starts on the same day of the week as [February](262) of the previous year.
Every year, May both starts and finishes on the same day of the week as [January](400) of the following year, as each other's first and last days are exactly 35 weeks (245 days) apart. In years immediately before common years, May starts on the same day of the week as [October](569) of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, [April](1) and [July](402) of the following year. In years immediately before common years, May finishes on the same day of the week as [February](262) and October of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, July of the following year.
In the [Northern Hemisphere](6829), May is in late [Spring](16382), and [May Day](9707) on [May 1](7725) and [Walpurgis Night](22481), during the night of [April 30](9887) to [May 1](7725), are symbolic of the transition from [winter](6643) to [summer](3640). In the [Southern Hemisphere](12161), it is in [autumn](18860), and comes just before the [Antarctic](1976) winter, when [emperor penguin](19933)s breed there.
## Events in May
Special devotions to the Virgin Mary take place in May.
### Fixed Events
- [May 1](7725) - [May Day](9707) in many countries.
- [May 1](7725) - International Workers' Day
- [May 1](7725) - Beltane (neo-[Pagan](21132) culture)
- [May 1](7725) - Lei Day ([Hawaii](332))
- [May 1](7725) - [Constitution](173) Day in [Latvia](4098) and the [Marshall Islands](5888)
- [May 2](9898) - Flag Day ([Poland](3045))
- [May 2](9898) - National Education Day ([Indonesia](3334))
- [May 2](9898) - Teachers' Day in [Iran](3772) and [Bhutan](13773)
- [May 3](7830) - [Constitution](173) Day ([Poland](3045), [Lithuania](4099))
- [May 3](7830) - Constitution Memorial Day ([Japan](403))
- [May 3](7830) - World Press Freedom Day
- [May 4](9897) - Unofficial [Star Wars](12644) Day
- [May 4](9897) - International Firefighters' Day
- [May 4](9897) - Youth Day in [China](120) and [Fiji](10005)
- [May 4](9897) - Greenery Day ([Japan](403))
- [May 4](9897) - Remembrance of the Dead ([Netherlands](3463))
- [May 5](9896) - Children's Day in [Japan](403) and [South Korea](5073)
- [May 5](9896) - Cinco de Mayo ([Mexico](1935) and [United States](219587))
- [May 5](9896) - Liberation Day in the [Netherlands](3463) and [Denmark](208)
- [May 5](9896) - Coronation Day ([Thailand](10138))
- [May 5](9896) - [Europe](216) Day
- [May 6](9895) - International No Diet Day
- [May 6](9895) - [Teacher](20316)'s Day ([Jamaica](11218))
- [May 6](9895) - [Saint George](5582)'s Day (Eastern Orthodox countries)
- [May 7](9894) - [Radio](8584) Day in [Russia](2964) and [Bulgaria](15937)
- [May 8](9518) - Victory in Europe Day, marking end of [World War II](219837) in [Europe](216)
- [May 8](9518) - International Red Cross and Red Crescent Day
- [May 8](9518) - Parents' Day ([South Korea](5073))
- [May 8](9518) - [Harry S. Truman](5422) Day ([Missouri](13536))
- [May 8](9518) - [Miguel Hidalgo](6658)'s [Birthday](22419) ([Mexico](1935))
- [May 9](9893) - Victory and Peace Day ([Armenia](56))
- [May 9](9893) - Victory Day (former [Soviet Union](3600) countries), marking end of [World War II](219837) in [Europe](216)
- [May 9](9893) - Independence Day ([Romania](2124))
- [May 10](9904) - Confederate Memorial Day ([North Carolina](14854) and [South Carolina](14852))
- [May 10](9904) - [Constitution](173) Day ([Federated States of Micronesia](29886))
- [May 10](9904) - Mother's Day ([Mexico](1935), [Guatemala](10298), [El Salvador](10897))
- [May 11](9905) - National Technology Day ([India](391))
- [May 11](9905) - Statehood Day ([Minnesota](10983))
- [May 12](8723) - International [Nurse](12364)s Day, birthday of [Florence Nightingale](34097)
- [May 12](8723) - Johan Vilhelm Snellman Day ([Finland](292))
- [May 16](9903) - National Day ([South Sudan](281134))
- [May 16](9903) - Teachers' Day ([Malaysia](7476))
- [May 17](9911) - [Constitution](173) Day, National Day of [Norway](3460)
- [May 17](9911) - Constitution Day ([Nauru](542))
- [May 17](9911) - Liberation Day ([Democratic Republic of the Congo](34328))
- [May 17](9911) - International Day Against [Homophobia](90423) and Transphobia
- [May 17](9911) - Navy Day ([Argentina](54))
- [May 17](9911) - National Famine Memorial Day ([Ireland](361))
- [May 17](9911) - [Galicia](62935)n [Literature](3887) Day
- [May 18](8374) - International [Museum](14057) Day
- [May 18](8374) - Independence Day ([Somaliland](19870))
- [May 18](8374) - Battle of Las Piedras Day ([Uruguay](10982))
- [May 19](8735) - Youth and Sports Day ([Turkey](2860))
- [May 19](8735) - Genocide Memorial Day ([Greece](2133))
- [May 19](8735) - [Ho Chi Minh](31873)'s [Birthday](22419) ([Vietnam](5075))
- [May 19](8735) - [Malcolm X](29865) Day ([United States](219587))
- [May 20](9825) - Independence Day ([Cuba](178))
- [May 20](9825) - Independence Day ([East Timor](21323))
- [May 21](9907) - Navy Day ([Chile](4008))
- [May 21](9907) - Independence Day ([Montenegro](27716))
- [May 21](9907) - [Saint Helena](20545) Day
- [May 21](9907) - Day of Patriots and the Military ([Hungary](3462))
- [May 22](9900) - Republic Day ([Sri Lanka](15886))
- [May 22](9900) - Unity Day ([Yemen](18499))
- [May 22](9900) - National Sovereignty Day ([Haiti](15863))
- [May 22](9900) - International Day of [Biological](101) Diversity
- [May 22](9900) - Harvey Milk Day ([California](3009))
- [May 23](9899) - Birthday of Guru Amar Das ([Sikhism](21592))
- [May 23](9899) - Declaration of the Bab (Baha'i faith)
- [May 23](9899) - Labour Day ([Jamaica](11218))
- [May 23](9899) - Students' Day ([Mexico](1935))
- [May 23](9899) - World [Turtle](14139) Day
- [May 24](7826) - Battle of Pichincha Day ([Ecuador](11243))
- [May 24](7826) - [Bermuda](20612) Day
- [May 24](7826) - Commonwealth Day ([Belize](8284))
- [May 24](7826) - Independence Day ([Eritrea](15032))
- [May 24](7826) - Aldersgate Day ([Methodism](33141))
- [May 24](7826) - National Patriots Day ([Quebec](649))
- [May 25](9910) - [Africa](1942) Day
- [May 25](9910) - [Geek](302696) Pride Day
- [May 25](9910) - Independence Day ([Jordan](14629))
- [May 25](9910) - Liberation Day ([Lebanon](7615))
- [May 25](9910) - National Day ([Argentina](54))
- [May 26](9909) - Independence Day ([Georgia](14986))
- [May 26](9909) - Independence Day ([Guyana](11622))
- [May 26](9909) - Crown Prince's [Birthday](22419) ([Denmark](208))
- [May 26](9909) - Mother's Day ([Poland](3045))
- [May 26](9909) - National Sorry Day ([Australia](27))
- [May 28](5157) - Independence Day ([Armenia](56))
- [May 28](5157) - Independence Day ([Azerbaijan](6370))
- [May 28](5157) - Republic Day ([Nepal](14411))
- [May 28](5157) - Flag Day ([Philippines](5103))
- [May 28](5157) - Armed Forces Day ([Croatia](11521))
- [May 30](9261) - [Anguilla](20611) Day
- [May 30](9261) - [Canary Islands](19765) Day
- [May 31](9901) - Anti-[Tobacco](8925) Day
### Moveable and Monthlong Events
- In the [United Kingdom](856), [May Day](9707) is May 1, but a public holiday is held on the first [Monday](4010) in May.
- In the [United States](219587), [Canada](219589) and [Australia](27), [Mother's Day](332593) is the second [Sunday](3837) in May.
- In the [United States](219587), [Memorial Day](30837), a public holiday, is on [May 30](9261), but is observed on the last [Monday](4010) in May.
- [Spring](16382) Bank Holiday in the [United Kingdom](856), last [Monday](4010) in May
- Eastern Orthodox [Easter](14981), between [April 4](5156) and [May 8](9518)
- Ascension Day (Western [Christianity](219595)), between [April 30](9887) and [June 3](9920)
- [Pentecost](61940), between [May 10](9904) and [June 13](10022) in Western [Christianity](219595) and between [May 23](9899) and [June 26](10029) in Eastern Orthodox Christianity
- Corpus Christi (Western [Christianity](219595)) between [May 21](9907) and [June 24](10035)
- Victoria Day ([Canada](219589)), [Monday](4010) on or before [May 24](7826)
- Giro d'Italia (Cycling)
- World [Snooker](28134) Championship, late [April](1), early May
- [Monaco](7963) Grand Prix, traditionally the most important race of the [Formula One](21161) season
- French Open ([Tennis](20314)), late May, early [June](401)
- The [Eurovision Song Contest](10317) is generally held in May
- [Marathon](6580) races:
- [Belfast](8561), [Northern Ireland](3050), UK
- Cleveland, Ohio, [US](720016)
- [Copenhagen](15624), [Denmark](208)
- [Edinburgh](4864), [Scotland](3049), UK
- [Ottawa](3838), [Canada](219589)
- [Pittsburgh](37561), [Pennsylvania](5099), [US](720016)
- [Prague](8607), [Czech Republic](6439)
- [Vancouver](8110), [British Columbia](3403), [Canada](219589)
## Selection of Historical Events
- [May 1](7725), [1851](10548) - Start of the Great [Exhibition](225587) in [London](460)
- [May 1](7725), [1931](9219) - The [Empire State Building](82066) in [New York City](566) is officially opened.
- [May 1](7725), [1994](3960) - Racing driver [Ayrton Senna](42327) is killed in a crash at the [San Marino](6240) Grand Prix
- [May 1](7725), [2004](3796) - Ten countries join the [European Union](2132).
- [May 2](9898), [1519](10141) - [Leonardo da Vinci](4654) dies.
- [May 2](9898), [1611](23030) - The King James Bible is published.
- [May 2](9898), [1945](4629) - Troops of the [Soviet Union](3600) capture [Berlin](2922) in the end-phase of [World War II](219837).
- [May 2](9898), [1997](3957) - [Tony Blair](4450) becomes [Prime Minister of the United Kingdom](18060).
- [May 2](9898), [2011](31950) - [Osama bin Laden](15187) is killed.
- [May 3](7830), [1791](19779) - [Poland](3045)'s first [Constitution](173) is introduced.
- [May 3](7830), [1947](8355) - [Japan](403)'s first post-[World War II](219837) [Constitution](173) enters effect.
- [May 3](7830), [2008](183009) - [Cyclone](65766) Nargis kills tens of thousands of people in Burma.
- [May 4](9897), [1493](25208) - [Pope Alexander VI](349729) divides the "New World" between [Spain](219832) and [Portugal](3466).
- [May 4](9897), [1979](7474) - [Margaret Thatcher](14529) becomes [Prime Minister of the United Kingdom](18060).
- [May 4](9897), [1990](8905) - [Latvia](4098) declares independence from the [Soviet Union](3600).
- [May 5](9896), [1821](11186) - Napoleon Bonaparte dies on the remote South Atlantic [island](367) of [Saint Helena](20545).
- [May 5](9896), [1945](4629) - [World War II](219837): [Denmark](208) and the [Netherlands](3463) are liberated.
- [May 6](9895), [1910](15082) - George V of the United Kingdom becomes King.
- [May 6](9895), [1937](8746) - The airship _LZ 129 Hindenburg_ catches [fire](9476) on landing in [New Jersey](14855), killing 36 people.
- [May 7](9894), [1915](11701) - A German U-boat sinks the [RMS _Lusitania_](313174), killing 1,198 people.
- [May 8](9518), [1902](4656) - Mount Pelee on [Martinique](20852) erupts, killing 30,000 people.
- [May 8](9518), [1945](4629) - [World War II](219837): Final surrender by [Germany](219828), ending the war in [Europe](216).
- [May 9](9893), [1901](15865) - The first [Australia](27)n [parliament](4075) meets in [Melbourne](4740). It is later moved to [Canberra](4742) on this day in [1927](10258).
- [May 9](9893), [1945](4629) - [World War II](219837): The [Channel Islands](6695) are liberated.
- [May 9](9893), [2018](188997) - [Mahathir Mohamad](440535)'s opposition coalition wins [Malaysia](7476)'s [general election](648370). Mahathir previously served as the country's [prime minister](648358) from [1981](5168) to [2003](3954).
- [May 10](9904), [1877](16050) - [Romania](2124) declares independence from [Turkey](2860).
- [May 10](9904), [1940](9212) - [Winston Churchill](8471) becomes [Prime Minister of the United Kingdom](18060) on the same day that [Germany](219828) invades the [Netherlands](3463), [Belgium](103) and [Luxembourg](2906).
- [May 10](9904), [1994](3960) - [Nelson Mandela](8575) becomes [President](4044) of [South Africa](3528).
- [May 11](9905), [1812](7903) - [Spencer Perceval](46181) becomes the only [Prime Minister of the United Kingdom](18060) to be assassinated.
- [May 11](9905), [1949](7183) - Siam changes its name to [Thailand](10138).
- [May 12](8723), [1926](9218) - The Italian airship _Norge_ flies over the [North Pole](2028).
- [May 12](8723), [2008](183009) - A major [earthquake](2081) strikes [Sichuan](88003) province, [China](120), killing tens of thousands of people.
- [May 13](9939), [1830](16852) - [Ecuador](11243) gains independence.
- [May 13](9939), [1981](5168) - An [assassination](19142) attempt is made on [Pope John Paul II](8047) in [Vatican City](897).
- [May 14](9906), [1811](20346) - [Paraguay](11418) gains independence.
- [May 14](9906), [1948](7177) - The State of [Israel](64543) is founded.
- [May 15](9902), [1701](11552) - The [War of the Spanish Succession](426511) begins.
- [May 16](9903), [1929](2897) - The first Academy Awards are given out.
- [May 16](9903), [1975](7794) - [Sikkim](8511) unites with [India](391).
- [May 16](9903), [2009](3992) - [Alexander Rybak](184018) of [Norway](3460) wins the [Eurovision Song Contest](10317) with a record points total.
- [May 17](9911), [1814](16325) - [Norway](3460)'s [Constitution](173) is agreed on.
- [May 18](8374), [1980](8714) - Mount Saint Helens erupts in [Washington](12773) [State](798), killing 57 people, and changing the surrounding landscape completely.
- [May 18](8374), [1991](3963) - [Somaliland](19870) declares independence, though this is not recognized internationally.
- [May 19](8735), [1536](10136) - [Anne Boleyn](5161), second wife of Henry VIII of England, is executed.
- [May 19](8735), [1991](3963) - Voters in [Croatia](11521) choose to become independent from [Yugoslavia](15797).
- [May 20](9825), [1883](15050) - [Krakatoa](21629) starts a series of eruptions that would end violently in [August](2).
- [May 20](9825), [1902](4656) - [Cuba](178) becomes independent from the [United States](219587).
- [May 20](9825), [2002](3953) - [East Timor](21323) becomes independent from [Indonesia](3334).
- [May 21](9907), [1927](10258) - [Charles Lindbergh](19075) flies across the [Atlantic Ocean](1936), landing in [Paris](4467).
- [May 21](9907), [1932](7463) - [Amelia Earhart](49396) becomes the first woman to fly across the [Atlantic Ocean](1936).
- [May 21](9907), [1991](3963) - Former [Prime Minister](3598) of [India](391) is assassinated.
- [May 21](9907), [2006](3965) - Voters in [Montenegro](27716) choose, by a majority, to separate from [Serbia](5000) and become independent.
- [May 22](9900), [1960](8426) - [Great Chilean Earthquake](46672)
- [May 22](9900), [1972](7473) - Ceylon changes its name to [Sri Lanka](15886) and becomes a [Republic](4978).
- [May 22](9900), [1980](8714) - The [Pac-man](31048) game is released.
- [May 22](9900), [1990](8905) - [Yemen](18499) unites.
- [May 23](9899), [1568](16555) - The [Netherlands](3463) declare independence from [Spain](219832).
- [May 23](9899), [1949](7183) - The Federal Republic of Germany is founded.
- [May 24](7826), [1832](16563) - The first [Kingdom](9597) of [Greece](2133) is declared.
- [May 24](7826), [1956](8427) - The first [Eurovision Song Contest](10317) takes place in [Lugano](86794), [Switzerland](2161).
- [May 24](7826), [1993](3961) - [Eritrea](15032) becomes independent from [Ethiopia](10484).
- [May 25](9910), [1810](20436) - [Argentine War of Independence](1174654) starts.
- [May 25](9910), [1963](8718) - The [African Union](28093) is founded.
- [May 26](9909), [1918](9268) - [Georgia](14986) declares independence from [Russia](2964).
- [May 26](9909), [1966](9560) - [Guyana](11622) becomes independent from the [United Kingdom](856).
- [May 27](9908), [1937](8746) - The [Golden Gate Bridge](7429) in [San Francisco](11481) opens to people crossing it on foot, opening to [vehicle](6153) traffic the next day.
- [May 28](5157), [1918](9268) - [Armenia](56) and [Azerbaijan](6370) both declare independence on the same day as each other.
- [May 28](5157), [2008](183009) - [Nepal](14411) becomes a [Republic](4978).
- [May 29](7459), [1660](25503) - [Charles II of England](24437), [Scotland](3049) and [Ireland](361) becomes [King](410), restoring the monarchy there.
- [May 29](7459), [1953](7455) - [Edmund Hillary](5118) and [Tenzing Norgay](26232) become the first people known to have reached the top of [Mount Everest](7447), from the [Nepal](14411)ese side.
- [May 31](9901), [1910](15082) - The [Union of South Africa](349565) is formed.
- [May 31](9901), [1911](8732) - The RMS _Titanic_ is launched in [Belfast](8561).
- [May 31](9901), [1970](4941) - A major [earthquake](2081) strikes [Peru](2915), causing several [avalanche](22671)s, the deadliest of which buries the [town](5937) of Yungay.
## Trivia
- The floral [symbol](683) of May is the Rosa chinensis.
- May is the only month that never begins ([June](401) is the other) or ends ([September](684) is the other) on the same day of the week as any other months within any calendar year.
- Along with [March](468), May is one of two months in the [English language](2843) that start with 'M' and have an 'A' as their second letter. They surround the [month](3641) of [April](1).
- In the [English language](2843), May has the shortest name of all the months of the year.
- The [astrological](29179) signs for May are [Taurus](506287) ([April 21](9885) to [May 20](9825)) and [Gemini](325806) ([May 21](9907) to [June 20](8235)): Additionally, in the English language, May is the only month of the year whose two astrological signs don't share any letters in common.
- May is the second of three months in a row, in the [English language](2843), that can also be a [female](3311) given name, along with [April](1) and [June](401).
- [May 1](7725) is the only day in May to be entirely within the first third of the [calendar](7517) year.
- "May" backwards is "[Yam](506414)", the name of a [vegetable](8364).
- Two 20th century [US President](7174)s were born in May - [Harry S. Truman](5422) ([May 8](9518)) and [John F. Kennedy](8310) ([May 29](7459)).
- No [President of the United States](7174), to-date, has died in May, though [James Buchanan](12648) narrowly avoided doing so, dying on the morning of [June 1](6644), [1868](16324). | **May** is the fifth month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars, coming between April and June. It has 31 days. The month of May might have been named for the Roman goddess Maia, or more likely the Roman goddess of fertility Bona Dea, whose festival was held in May.
May never begins or ends on the same day of the week as any other month.
May's flower is the Lily of the Valley. Its birthstone is the emerald. The meaning of the emerald is success in love.
## The Month
May comes between April and June and is the fifth month of the year in the Gregorian calendar. It is one of the seven months to have 31 days. In the older Roman calendar, May was the third month of the year. It is a spring month in the Northern Hemisphere and an autumn month in the Southern Hemisphere. In each hemisphere, it is the seasonal equivalent of November in the other. May is likely to have been named after the Roman goddess Maia, though there is a theory that May might have its name from the Latin "Maiores", meaning "Seniors". The same theory suggests that June would then be named from "Iuniores", meaning "Juniors".
No other month of any year either begins or ends on the same day of the week as May: this month is the only one that has both of these properties.
In common years, May starts on the same day of the week as August of the previous year, and in leap years, March and November of the previous year. In common years, May finishes on the same day of the week as August and November of the previous year, and in leap years, March and June of the previous year. In leap years and years immediately after that, May starts on the same day of the week as February of the previous year.
Every year, May both starts and finishes on the same day of the week as January of the following year, as each other's first and last days are exactly 35 weeks (245 days) apart. In years immediately before common years, May starts on the same day of the week as October of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, April and July of the following year. In years immediately before common years, May finishes on the same day of the week as February and October of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, July of the following year.
In the Northern Hemisphere, May is in late Spring, and May Day on May 1 and Walpurgis Night, during the night of April 30 to May 1, are symbolic of the transition from winter to summer. In the Southern Hemisphere, it is in autumn, and comes just before the Antarctic winter, when emperor penguins breed there.
## Events in May
Special devotions to the Virgin Mary take place in May.
### Fixed Events
- May 1 - May Day in many countries.
- May 1 - International Workers' Day
- May 1 - Beltane (neo-Pagan culture)
- May 1 - Lei Day (Hawaii)
- May 1 - Constitution Day in Latvia and the Marshall Islands
- May 2 - Flag Day (Poland)
- May 2 - National Education Day (Indonesia)
- May 2 - Teachers' Day in Iran and Bhutan
- May 3 - Constitution Day (Poland, Lithuania)
- May 3 - Constitution Memorial Day (Japan)
- May 3 - World Press Freedom Day
- May 4 - Unofficial Star Wars Day
- May 4 - International Firefighters' Day
- May 4 - Youth Day in China and Fiji
- May 4 - Greenery Day (Japan)
- May 4 - Remembrance of the Dead (Netherlands)
- May 5 - Children's Day in Japan and South Korea
- May 5 - Cinco de Mayo (Mexico and United States)
- May 5 - Liberation Day in the Netherlands and Denmark
- May 5 - Coronation Day (Thailand)
- May 5 - Europe Day
- May 6 - International No Diet Day
- May 6 - Teacher's Day (Jamaica)
- May 6 - Saint George's Day (Eastern Orthodox countries)
- May 7 - Radio Day in Russia and Bulgaria
- May 8 - Victory in Europe Day, marking end of World War II in Europe
- May 8 - International Red Cross and Red Crescent Day
- May 8 - Parents' Day (South Korea)
- May 8 - Harry S. Truman Day (Missouri)
- May 8 - Miguel Hidalgo's Birthday (Mexico)
- May 9 - Victory and Peace Day (Armenia)
- May 9 - Victory Day (former Soviet Union countries), marking end of World War II in Europe
- May 9 - Independence Day (Romania)
- May 10 - Confederate Memorial Day (North Carolina and South Carolina)
- May 10 - Constitution Day (Federated States of Micronesia)
- May 10 - Mother's Day (Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador)
- May 11 - National Technology Day (India)
- May 11 - Statehood Day (Minnesota)
- May 12 - International Nurses Day, birthday of Florence Nightingale
- May 12 - Johan Vilhelm Snellman Day (Finland)
- May 16 - National Day (South Sudan)
- May 16 - Teachers' Day (Malaysia)
- May 17 - Constitution Day, National Day of Norway
- May 17 - Constitution Day (Nauru)
- May 17 - Liberation Day (Democratic Republic of the Congo)
- May 17 - International Day Against Homophobia and Transphobia
- May 17 - Navy Day (Argentina)
- May 17 - National Famine Memorial Day (Ireland)
- May 17 - Galician Literature Day
- May 18 - International Museum Day
- May 18 - Independence Day (Somaliland)
- May 18 - Battle of Las Piedras Day (Uruguay)
- May 19 - Youth and Sports Day (Turkey)
- May 19 - Genocide Memorial Day (Greece)
- May 19 - Ho Chi Minh's Birthday (Vietnam)
- May 19 - Malcolm X Day (United States)
- May 20 - Independence Day (Cuba)
- May 20 - Independence Day (East Timor)
- May 21 - Navy Day (Chile)
- May 21 - Independence Day (Montenegro)
- May 21 - Saint Helena Day
- May 21 - Day of Patriots and the Military (Hungary)
- May 22 - Republic Day (Sri Lanka)
- May 22 - Unity Day (Yemen)
- May 22 - National Sovereignty Day (Haiti)
- May 22 - International Day of Biological Diversity
- May 22 - Harvey Milk Day (California)
- May 23 - Birthday of Guru Amar Das (Sikhism)
- May 23 - Declaration of the Bab (Baha'i faith)
- May 23 - Labour Day (Jamaica)
- May 23 - Students' Day (Mexico)
- May 23 - World Turtle Day
- May 24 - Battle of Pichincha Day (Ecuador)
- May 24 - Bermuda Day
- May 24 - Commonwealth Day (Belize)
- May 24 - Independence Day (Eritrea)
- May 24 - Aldersgate Day (Methodism)
- May 24 - National Patriots Day (Quebec)
- May 25 - Africa Day
- May 25 - Geek Pride Day
- May 25 - Independence Day (Jordan)
- May 25 - Liberation Day (Lebanon)
- May 25 - National Day (Argentina)
- May 26 - Independence Day (Georgia)
- May 26 - Independence Day (Guyana)
- May 26 - Crown Prince's Birthday (Denmark)
- May 26 - Mother's Day (Poland)
- May 26 - National Sorry Day (Australia)
- May 28 - Independence Day (Armenia)
- May 28 - Independence Day (Azerbaijan)
- May 28 - Republic Day (Nepal)
- May 28 - Flag Day (Philippines)
- May 28 - Armed Forces Day (Croatia)
- May 30 - Anguilla Day
- May 30 - Canary Islands Day
- May 31 - Anti-Tobacco Day
### Moveable and Monthlong Events
- In the United Kingdom, May Day is May 1, but a public holiday is held on the first Monday in May.
- In the United States, Canada and Australia, Mother's Day is the second Sunday in May.
- In the United States, Memorial Day, a public holiday, is on May 30, but is observed on the last Monday in May.
- Spring Bank Holiday in the United Kingdom, last Monday in May
- Eastern Orthodox Easter, between April 4 and May 8
- Ascension Day (Western Christianity), between April 30 and June 3
- Pentecost, between May 10 and June 13 in Western Christianity and between May 23 and June 26 in Eastern Orthodox Christianity
- Corpus Christi (Western Christianity) between May 21 and June 24
- Victoria Day (Canada), Monday on or before May 24
- Giro d'Italia (Cycling)
- World Snooker Championship, late April, early May
- Monaco Grand Prix, traditionally the most important race of the Formula One season
- French Open (Tennis), late May, early June
- The Eurovision Song Contest is generally held in May
- Marathon races:
- Belfast, Northern Ireland, UK
- Cleveland, Ohio, US
- Copenhagen, Denmark
- Edinburgh, Scotland, UK
- Ottawa, Canada
- Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, US
- Prague, Czech Republic
- Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
## Selection of Historical Events
- May 1, 1851 - Start of the Great Exhibition in London
- May 1, 1931 - The Empire State Building in New York City is officially opened.
- May 1, 1994 - Racing driver Ayrton Senna is killed in a crash at the San Marino Grand Prix
- May 1, 2004 - Ten countries join the European Union.
- May 2, 1519 - Leonardo da Vinci dies.
- May 2, 1611 - The King James Bible is published.
- May 2, 1945 - Troops of the Soviet Union capture Berlin in the end-phase of World War II.
- May 2, 1997 - Tony Blair becomes Prime Minister of the United Kingdom.
- May 2, 2011 - Osama bin Laden is killed.
- May 3, 1791 - Poland's first Constitution is introduced.
- May 3, 1947 - Japan's first post-World War II Constitution enters effect.
- May 3, 2008 - Cyclone Nargis kills tens of thousands of people in Burma.
- May 4, 1493 - Pope Alexander VI divides the "New World" between Spain and Portugal.
- May 4, 1979 - Margaret Thatcher becomes Prime Minister of the United Kingdom.
- May 4, 1990 - Latvia declares independence from the Soviet Union.
- May 5, 1821 - Napoleon Bonaparte dies on the remote South Atlantic island of Saint Helena.
- May 5, 1945 - World War II: Denmark and the Netherlands are liberated.
- May 6, 1910 - George V of the United Kingdom becomes King.
- May 6, 1937 - The airship _LZ 129 Hindenburg_ catches fire on landing in New Jersey, killing 36 people.
- May 7, 1915 - A German U-boat sinks the RMS _Lusitania_, killing 1,198 people.
- May 8, 1902 - Mount Pelee on Martinique erupts, killing 30,000 people.
- May 8, 1945 - World War II: Final surrender by Germany, ending the war in Europe.
- May 9, 1901 - The first Australian parliament meets in Melbourne. It is later moved to Canberra on this day in 1927.
- May 9, 1945 - World War II: The Channel Islands are liberated.
- May 9, 2018 - Mahathir Mohamad's opposition coalition wins Malaysia's general election. Mahathir previously served as the country's prime minister from 1981 to 2003.
- May 10, 1877 - Romania declares independence from Turkey.
- May 10, 1940 - Winston Churchill becomes Prime Minister of the United Kingdom on the same day that Germany invades the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg.
- May 10, 1994 - Nelson Mandela becomes President of South Africa.
- May 11, 1812 - Spencer Perceval becomes the only Prime Minister of the United Kingdom to be assassinated.
- May 11, 1949 - Siam changes its name to Thailand.
- May 12, 1926 - The Italian airship _Norge_ flies over the North Pole.
- May 12, 2008 - A major earthquake strikes Sichuan province, China, killing tens of thousands of people.
- May 13, 1830 - Ecuador gains independence.
- May 13, 1981 - An assassination attempt is made on Pope John Paul II in Vatican City.
- May 14, 1811 - Paraguay gains independence.
- May 14, 1948 - The State of Israel is founded.
- May 15, 1701 - The War of the Spanish Succession begins.
- May 16, 1929 - The first Academy Awards are given out.
- May 16, 1975 - Sikkim unites with India.
- May 16, 2009 - Alexander Rybak of Norway wins the Eurovision Song Contest with a record points total.
- May 17, 1814 - Norway's Constitution is agreed on.
- May 18, 1980 - Mount Saint Helens erupts in Washington State, killing 57 people, and changing the surrounding landscape completely.
- May 18, 1991 - Somaliland declares independence, though this is not recognized internationally.
- May 19, 1536 - Anne Boleyn, second wife of Henry VIII of England, is executed.
- May 19, 1991 - Voters in Croatia choose to become independent from Yugoslavia.
- May 20, 1883 - Krakatoa starts a series of eruptions that would end violently in August.
- May 20, 1902 - Cuba becomes independent from the United States.
- May 20, 2002 - East Timor becomes independent from Indonesia.
- May 21, 1927 - Charles Lindbergh flies across the Atlantic Ocean, landing in Paris.
- May 21, 1932 - Amelia Earhart becomes the first woman to fly across the Atlantic Ocean.
- May 21, 1991 - Former Prime Minister of India is assassinated.
- May 21, 2006 - Voters in Montenegro choose, by a majority, to separate from Serbia and become independent.
- May 22, 1960 - Great Chilean Earthquake
- May 22, 1972 - Ceylon changes its name to Sri Lanka and becomes a Republic.
- May 22, 1980 - The Pac-man game is released.
- May 22, 1990 - Yemen unites.
- May 23, 1568 - The Netherlands declare independence from Spain.
- May 23, 1949 - The Federal Republic of Germany is founded.
- May 24, 1832 - The first Kingdom of Greece is declared.
- May 24, 1956 - The first Eurovision Song Contest takes place in Lugano, Switzerland.
- May 24, 1993 - Eritrea becomes independent from Ethiopia.
- May 25, 1810 - Argentine War of Independence starts.
- May 25, 1963 - The African Union is founded.
- May 26, 1918 - Georgia declares independence from Russia.
- May 26, 1966 - Guyana becomes independent from the United Kingdom.
- May 27, 1937 - The Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco opens to people crossing it on foot, opening to vehicle traffic the next day.
- May 28, 1918 - Armenia and Azerbaijan both declare independence on the same day as each other.
- May 28, 2008 - Nepal becomes a Republic.
- May 29, 1660 - Charles II of England, Scotland and Ireland becomes King, restoring the monarchy there.
- May 29, 1953 - Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay become the first people known to have reached the top of Mount Everest, from the Nepalese side.
- May 31, 1910 - The Union of South Africa is formed.
- May 31, 1911 - The RMS _Titanic_ is launched in Belfast.
- May 31, 1970 - A major earthquake strikes Peru, causing several avalanches, the deadliest of which buries the town of Yungay.
## Trivia
- The floral symbol of May is the Rosa chinensis.
- May is the only month that never begins (June is the other) or ends (September is the other) on the same day of the week as any other months within any calendar year.
- Along with March, May is one of two months in the English language that start with 'M' and have an 'A' as their second letter. They surround the month of April.
- In the English language, May has the shortest name of all the months of the year.
- The astrological signs for May are Taurus (April 21 to May 20) and Gemini (May 21 to June 20): Additionally, in the English language, May is the only month of the year whose two astrological signs don't share any letters in common.
- May is the second of three months in a row, in the English language, that can also be a female given name, along with April and June.
- May 1 is the only day in May to be entirely within the first third of the calendar year.
- "May" backwards is "Yam", the name of a vegetable.
- Two 20th century US Presidents were born in May - Harry S. Truman (May 8) and John F. Kennedy (May 29).
- No President of the United States, to-date, has died in May, though James Buchanan narrowly avoided doing so, dying on the morning of June 1, 1868. | high | false | false |
472 | Music | **Music** is a form of [art](6) that uses [sound](686) organised in [time](3219). Music is also a form of [entertainment](5300) that puts sounds together in a way that people like, find interesting or [dance](187) to. Most music includes people [singing](51746) with their voices or playing [musical instrument](8467)s, such as the [piano](6693), [guitar](13183), [drum](23398)s or [bass](14408).
## Definition of music
Music is sound that has been organized by using [rhythm](32601), [melody](50774) or [harmony](29346). If someone bangs saucepans while [cooking](146), it makes noise. If a person bangs saucepans or pots in a rhythmic way, they are making a simple type of music.
There are four things which music has most of the time:
- Music often has _[pitch](46068)_. This means high and low notes. Tunes are made of notes that go up or down or stay on the same pitch.
- Music often has _[rhythm](32601)_. Rhythm is the way the musical sounds and silences are put together in a sequence. Every tune has a rhythm that can be tapped. Music usually has a regular beat.
- Music often has _[dynamics](59919)_. This means whether it is quiet or loud or somewhere in between.
- Music often has _[timbre](39273)_. This is a French word (pronounced: "TAM-br"). The "timbre" of a sound is the way that a sound is interesting. The sort of sound might be harsh, gentle, dry, warm, or something else. Timbre is what makes a [clarinet](14228) sound different from an [oboe](4018), and what makes one person's [voice](13785) sound different from another person.
### Definitions
There is no simple definition of music which covers all cases. It is an art form, and [opinion](30449)s come into play. Music is whatever people think is music. A different approach is to list the qualities music must have, such as, sound which has rhythm, melody, pitch, timbre, etc.
These and other attempts, do not capture all aspects of music, or leave out examples which definitely are music. Music is a special shared relationship between a person, the person's [behavior](19502), and a sounding object.<sup>p10</sup> Musical experience and the music, together, are called [phenomena](18125), and the activity of describing phenomena is called [phenomenology](112854).
## History
Even in the [stone age](4456) people made music. The first music was probably made trying to imitate sounds and rhythms that occurred naturally. Human music may echo these [phenomena](18125) using [pattern](60470)s, [repetition](211715) and [tonality](30112). This kind of music is still here today. [Shamans](138701) sometimes imitate sounds that are heard in [nature](547). It may also serve as [entertainment](5300) (games), or have practical uses, like [attracting](93486) animals when [hunting](33836).
Some animals also can use music. [Songbird](147853)s use [song](9460) to protect their [territory](156768), or to attract a mate. [Monkey](16133)s have been seen beating hollow logs. This may, of course, also serve to defend the territory.
The first musical instrument used by humans was probably the [voice](13785). The human voice can make many different kinds of sounds. The [larynx](78623) (voice box) is like a wind instrument.
The oldest known [Neanderthal](102275) [hyoid](358011) bone with the modern human form was found in 1983, indicating that the Neanderthals had language, because the hyoid supports the voice box in the human throat.
Most likely the first [rhythm](32601) instruments or percussion instruments involved the [clapping](234526) of hands, stones hit together, or other things that are useful to keep a beat. There are finds of this type that date back to the paleolithic. Some of these are ambiguous, as they can be used either as a [tool](158772) or a musical instrument.
### The first flutes
The oldest [flute](14223) ever discovered may be the [Divje Babe flute](1242888), found in the [Slovenia](3468)n cave Divje Babe I in 1995. It is not certain that it is really a flute. The item in question is a piece of the [femur](275800) of a young cave [bear](15230), and is about 43,000 years old. However, whether it is a musical instrument or just a bone that got chewed on is an ongoing debate.
In 2008, [archaeologists](57) discovered a bone flute in the Hohle Fels cave near [Ulm](21870), [Germany](219828). The five-holed flute has a V-shaped mouthpiece and is made from a [vulture](9068) wing bone. The discovery is the oldest confirmed find of any musical instrument in history. Other flutes were also found in the cave. This flute was found next to the Venus of Hohle Fels and a short distance from the oldest known human carving. When they announced their discovery in 2009, the scientists suggested that the find showed that there was a well-established musical tradition when humans colonized Europe.
The oldest known wooden pipes were discovered near [Greystones](56187), [Ireland](5074), in 2004. A wood-lined pit contained a group of six flutes made from yew wood, between 30 and 50 cm long, tapered at one end, but without any finger holes. They may once have been strapped together.
In 1986 several bone flutes were found in Jiahu in Henan Province, China. They date to about 6,000 BC. They have between 5 and 8 holes each and were made from the hollow bones of a bird, the [Red-crowned Crane](157486). At the time of the discovery, one was still playable. The bone flute plays both the five- or seven-note scale of Xia Zhi and six-note scale of Qing Shang of the ancient [Chinese musical system](309428).
<div align="centre">
|Periods in music history|Dates|
| --- | --- |
|Prehistoric music Ancient music [Medieval music](59668) [Renaissance music](59707) [Baroque music](28602) [Classical period (music)](515161) [Romantic music](29082) Modern period|(before [writing](3681)) (before 350) About 350-1400 1400–1600 1600–1750 1740–1820 1820–1900 1900-today|
</div>
### Ancient times
It is not known what the earliest human music was like. Some [architecture](49) and [painting](11274)s are thousands of years old, but old music could not survive until people learned to write it down. The only way we can guess about early music is by looking at very old paintings that show people playing musical instruments, or by finding instruments in [archaeological](57) digs (digging underground to find old things). The earliest piece of music that was ever written down and that has not been lost was discovered on a tablet written in [Hurrian](29854), a [language](419) spoken in and around northern [Mesopotamia](43746) (where Iraq is today), from about 1500 BC.
### Middle Ages
Another surviving piece of early written music was a [round](28430) called _[Sumer Is Icumen In](58428)_. It was written down by a [monk](14322) around the year 1250. Much of the music in the [Middle Ages](6593) (roughly 450-1420) was [folk music](24302) played by working people who wanted to sing or dance. When people played instruments, they were usually playing for dancers. However, most of the music that was written down was for the Catholic church. This music was written for monks to sing in church. It is called Chant (or [Gregorian chant](34620)).
### Renaissance
In the [Renaissance](25297) (roughly 1400–1550) there was a lot of music, and many composers wrote music that has survived so that it can be performed, played or sung today. Many new types of [art](6) and music was made during this time.
Some music was written for use in church services (sacred music) by the Italian composer [Giovanni da Palestrina](28995) (1525–1594). In Palestrina's music, many singers sing together (this is called a [choir](37796)). There was also plenty of music not written for the church, such as happy [dance music](58933) and romantic love songs. Popular instruments during the Renaissance included the [viol](53991)s (a [string instrument](18420) played with a [bow)](39238), [lute](14231)s (a plucked stringed instrument that is a little like a [guitar](13183)), and the virginal, a small, quiet [keyboard instrument](45791).
### Baroque
The Baroque (roughly 1600–1740) was a Western cultural era. It emphasised drama and splendor in sculpture, painting, literature, dance, and music. In music, the term 'Baroque' applies to the final period of dominance of imitative counterpoint, where different voices and instruments echo each other but at different pitches, sometimes inverting the echo, and even reversing thematic material.
The popularity and success of the Baroque style was encouraged by the Roman Catholic Church which had decided at the time of the Council of Trent that the arts should communicate religious themes in direct and emotional involvement. The upper class also saw the dramatic style of Baroque architecture and art as a means of impressing visitors and expressing triumphant power and control. Baroque palaces are built around an entrance of courts, grand staircases and reception rooms of sequentially increasing opulence. In similar profusions of detail, art, music, architecture, and literature inspired each other in the Baroque cultural movement as artists explored what they could create from repeated and varied patterns. Some traits and aspects of Baroque paintings that differentiate this style from others are the abundant amount of details, often bright polychromy, less realistic faces of subjects, and an overall sense of awe, which was one of the goals in Baroque art.
The word baroque probably derives from the ancient Portuguese noun "barroco" which is a pearl that is not round but of unpredictable and elaborate shape. Hence, in informal usage, the word baroque can simply mean that something is "elaborate", with many details, without reference to the Baroque styles of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
### Classical period
In western music, the [classical period](515161) means music from about 1750 to 1825. It was the time of composers like [Joseph Haydn](28543), [Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart](4462) and [Ludwig van Beethoven](4633). Orchestras became bigger, and composers often wrote longer pieces of music called [symphonies](29627) that had several sections (called [movements](43321)). Some movements of a symphony were loud and fast; other movements were quiet and sad. The form of a piece of music was very important at this time. Music had to have a nice 'shape'. They often used a structure which was called [sonata form](28949).
Another important type of music was the [string quartet](30374), which is a piece of music written for two [violin](12305)s, a [viola](29032), and a violoncello. Like symphonies, string quartet music had several sections. Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven each wrote many famous string quartets.
The piano was invented during this time. Composers liked the piano, because it could be used to play dynamics (getting louder or getting softer). Other popular instruments included the [violin](12305), the violoncello, the [flute](14223), the [clarinet](14228), and the [oboe](4018).
### Romantic period
The 19th century is called the [Romantic period](29082). Composers were particularly interested in conveying their emotions through music. An important instrument from the Romantic period was the [piano](6693). Some composers, such as Frederic Chopin, wrote subdued, expressive, quietly emotional piano pieces. Often music described a feeling or told a story using sounds. [Franz Schubert](30072), for example, wrote songs (called [Lied](50192), the German word for "song") for a singer accompanied by a piano player; these Lieder (plural of Lied) told stories by using the [lyrics](59136) (words) of the song and by the imaginative piano accompaniments. Richard Strauss and [Franz Liszt](43159) both created narratives and told stories using only music, which is called a tone poem, while [Franz Liszt](43159) and [Johannes Brahms](28816) used the piano to play loud, dramatic, strongly emotional music.
Many composers began writing music for bigger orchestras, with as many as 100 instruments. It was the period of "[Nationalism](23712)" (the feeling of being proud of one's country) when many composers made music using [folksong](24302) or melodies from their country. Lots of famous composers lived at this time such as [Franz Schubert](30072), [Felix Mendelssohn](26742), Frederic Chopin, [Johannes Brahms](28816), Pyotr Tchaikovsky and [Richard Wagner](28980).
### Modern times
From about 1900 onwards is called the "modern period". Many [20th century](3407) composers wanted to compose music that sounded different from the Classical and Romantic music. Modern composers searched for new ideas, such as using new instruments, different forms, different sounds, or different [harmonies](29346).
The composer [Arnold Schoenberg](16191) (1874–1951) wrote pieces which were atonal (meaning that they did not sound as if they were in any clear musical key). Later, Schoenberg invented a new system for writing music called twelve-tone system. Music written with the twelve-tone system sounds strange to some, but is mathematical in nature, often making sense only after careful study. Pure twelve-tone music was popular among academics in the fifties and sixties, but some composers such as [Benjamin Britten](28820) use it today, when it is necessary to get a certain feel.
One of the most important 20th-century composers, [Igor Stravinsky](30137) (1882–1971), wrote music with very complicated (difficult) [chord](40631)s (groups of notes that are played together) and [rhythm](32601)s. Some composers thought music was getting too complicated and so they wrote [Minimalist](30136) pieces which use very simple ideas. In the 1950s and 1960s, composers such as [Karlheinz Stockhausen](10339) experimented with [electronic music](30003), using electronic circuits, [amplifier](47843)s and [loudspeaker](47849)s. In the 1970s, composers began using electronic synthesizers and musical instruments from [rock and roll](12945) music, such as the [electric guitar](23976). They used these new instruments to make new sounds.
Composers writing in the 1990s and the 2000s, such as [John Adams](28440) (born 1947) and [James MacMillan](29874) (born 1959) often use a mixture of all these ideas, but they like to write [tonal](30112) music with easy tunes as well.
#### Electronic music
Music can be produced electronically. This is most commonly done by computers, keyboards, electric guitars and disk tables. They can mimic traditional instruments, and also produce very different sounds. 21st-century electronic music is commonly made with computer programs and hardware mixers.
#### Jazz
[Jazz](4714) is a type of music that was invented around 1900 in New Orleans in the south of the [USA](219587). There were many black musicians living there who played a style of music called [blues](21505) music. Blues music was influenced by [Africa](1942)n music (because the black people in the United States had come to the United States as slaves. They were taken from Africa by force). Blues music was a music that was played by singing, using the harmonica, or the acoustic guitar. Many blues songs had sad lyrics about sad emotions (feelings) or sad experiences, such as losing a job, a family member dying, or having to go to [jail](1932) (prison).
Jazz music mixed together blues music with [Europe](216)an music. Some black composers such as [Scott Joplin](23695) were writing music called [ragtime](303659), which had a very different rhythm from standard European music, but used notes that were similar to some European music. Ragtime was a big influence on early jazz, called Dixieland jazz. Jazz musicians used instruments such as the [trumpet](24195), [saxophone](7210), and [clarinet](14228) were used for the tunes (melodies), drums for percussion and plucked [double bass](16629), [piano](6693), [banjo](78946) and [guitar](13183) for the background rhythm (rhythmic section). Jazz is usually [improvised](29158): the players make up (invent) the music as they play. Even though jazz musicians are making up the music, jazz music still has [rule](12655)s; the musicians play a series of chords (groups of notes) in order.
Jazz music has a swinging rhythm. The word "swing" is hard to explain. For a rhythm to be a "swinging rhythm" it has to feel natural and relaxed. Swing rhythm is not even like a march. There is a long-short feel instead of a same-same feel. A "swinging rhythm" also gets the people who are listening excited, because they like the sound of it. Some people say that a "swinging rhythm" happens when all the jazz musicians start to feel the same pulse and energy from the song. If a jazz band plays very well together, people will say "that is a swinging jazz band" or "that band really swings well."
Jazz influenced other types of music like the [Western art music](5022) from the 1920s and 1930s. Art music composers such as [James Brown](12318) and [George Gershwin](12465) wrote music that was influenced by jazz. Jazz music influenced [pop music](2041) songs. In the 1930s and 1940s, many pop music songs began using chords or melodies from jazz songs. One of the best known jazz musicians was [Louis Armstrong](21448) (1900–1971).
#### Pop music
"Pop" music is a type of _popular_ music that many people like to listen to. The term "pop music" can be used for all kinds of music that was written to be popular. The word "pop music" was used from about 1880 onwards, when a type of music called music was popular.
Modern pop music grew out of 1950's [rock and roll](12945), (for example [Chuck Berry](49425), [Bo Diddley](103518) and [Sezen Aksu](112846)) and [rockabilly](47940) (for example [Elvis Presley](7443) and [Buddy Holly](20519)). In the 1960s, [The Beatles](4726) became a famous pop music group. In the 1970s, other styles of music were mixed with pop music, such as [funk](20116) and [soul music](63419). Pop music generally has a heavy (strong) beat, so that it is good for dancing. Pop singers normally sing with microphones that are plugged into an [amplifier](47843) and a [loudspeaker](47849).
## Musical notation
"Musical notation" is the way music is written down. Music needs to be written down in order to be saved and remembered for future performances. In this way composers (people who write music) can tell others how to play the musical piece as it was meant to be played.
### Solfège
Solfège (sometimes called solfa) is the way tones are named. It was made in order to give a name to the several tones and pitches. For example, the eight basic notes "Do, Re, Mi, Fa, So, La, Ti, Do" are just the names of the eight notes that confirm the [major scale](55320).
### Written music
Music can be written in several ways. When it is written on a [staff](46976) (like in the example shown), the pitches (tones) and their duration are represented by symbols called notes. Notes are put on the lines and in the spaces between the lines. Each position says which tone must be played. The higher the note is on the staff, the higher the pitch of the tone. The lower the notes are, the lower the pitch. The duration of the notes (how long they are played for) is shown by making the note "heads" black or white, and by giving them stems and flags.
Music can also be written with letters, naming them as in the solfa "Do, Re, Mi, Fa, So, La, Ti, Do" or representing them with letters. The next table shows how each note of the solfa is represented in the [Standard Notation](87186):
|Solfa Name|Standard Notation|
| --- | --- |
|Do|C|
|Re|D|
|Mi|E|
|Fa|F|
|So|G|
|La|A|
|Ti|B|
The Standard Notation was made to simplify the lecture of music notes, although it is mostly used to represent [chords](40631) and the names of the [music scales](28550).
These ways to represent music ease the way a person reads music. There are more ways to write and represent music, but they are less known and may be more complicated.
### By listening
People can enjoy music by listening to it. They can go to [concert](23103)s to hear musicians perform. [Classical music](5022) is usually performed in [concert hall](75325)s, but sometimes huge festivals are organized in which it is performed outside, in a field or stadium, like pop festivals. People can listen to music on [CD's](8026), Computers, iPods, [television](1999), the [radio](8584), cassette/record-players and even mobile phones.
There is so much music today, in [elevator](44593)s, shopping [mall](41246)s, and [stores](19446), that it often becomes a background sound that we do not really hear.
### By playing or singing
People can learn to play an instrument. Probably the most common for complete beginners is the [piano](6693) or [keyboard](45791), the [guitar](13183), or the [recorder](22662) (which is certainly the cheapest to buy). After they have learnt to play [scales](28550), play simple tunes and read the simplest [musical notation](87186), then they can think about which instrument for further development. They should choose an instrument that is practical for their size. For example, a very short child cannot play a full size [double bass](16629), because the double bass is over five feet high. People should choose an instrument that they enjoy playing, because playing regularly is the only way to get better. Finally, it helps to have a good [teacher](20316).
### By composing
Anyone can make up their own pieces of music. It is not difficult to compose simple songs or melodies (tunes). It's easier for people who can play an instrument themselves. All it takes is experimenting with the sounds that an instrument makes. Someone can make up a piece that tells a story, or just find a nice tune and think about ways it can be changed each time it is repeated. The instrument might be someone's own voice.
## Related pages
- [Classical music](5022)
- [Christmas music](564141)
- [Jazz music](4714)
- [Cuban music](205203)
- [Musical instrument](8467)
- [Orchestra](7690)
- [Pop music](2041)
- [Traditional pop](777807)
- [Scale (music)](28550)
### Books
- The Oxfords Companion to Music, ed. Percy Scholes, London 1970
- The New Groves Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie, London 1980
## Other websites
- [The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Museum](http://www.rockhall.com/)
- [The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame](https://deepikainfo.in/)
- [Music City the free music encyclopedia](http://www.music-city.org/) | **Music** is a form of art that uses sound organised in time. Music is also a form of entertainment that puts sounds together in a way that people like, find interesting or dance to. Most music includes people singing with their voices or playing musical instruments, such as the piano, guitar, drums or bass.
## Definition of music
Music is sound that has been organized by using rhythm, melody or harmony. If someone bangs saucepans while cooking, it makes noise. If a person bangs saucepans or pots in a rhythmic way, they are making a simple type of music.
There are four things which music has most of the time:
- Music often has _pitch_. This means high and low notes. Tunes are made of notes that go up or down or stay on the same pitch.
- Music often has _rhythm_. Rhythm is the way the musical sounds and silences are put together in a sequence. Every tune has a rhythm that can be tapped. Music usually has a regular beat.
- Music often has _dynamics_. This means whether it is quiet or loud or somewhere in between.
- Music often has _timbre_. This is a French word (pronounced: "TAM-br"). The "timbre" of a sound is the way that a sound is interesting. The sort of sound might be harsh, gentle, dry, warm, or something else. Timbre is what makes a clarinet sound different from an oboe, and what makes one person's voice sound different from another person.
### Definitions
There is no simple definition of music which covers all cases. It is an art form, and opinions come into play. Music is whatever people think is music. A different approach is to list the qualities music must have, such as, sound which has rhythm, melody, pitch, timbre, etc.
These and other attempts, do not capture all aspects of music, or leave out examples which definitely are music. Music is a special shared relationship between a person, the person's behavior, and a sounding object.<sup>p10</sup> Musical experience and the music, together, are called phenomena, and the activity of describing phenomena is called phenomenology.
## History
Even in the stone age people made music. The first music was probably made trying to imitate sounds and rhythms that occurred naturally. Human music may echo these phenomena using patterns, repetition and tonality. This kind of music is still here today. Shamans sometimes imitate sounds that are heard in nature. It may also serve as entertainment (games), or have practical uses, like attracting animals when hunting.
Some animals also can use music. Songbirds use song to protect their territory, or to attract a mate. Monkeys have been seen beating hollow logs. This may, of course, also serve to defend the territory.
The first musical instrument used by humans was probably the voice. The human voice can make many different kinds of sounds. The larynx (voice box) is like a wind instrument.
The oldest known Neanderthal hyoid bone with the modern human form was found in 1983, indicating that the Neanderthals had language, because the hyoid supports the voice box in the human throat.
Most likely the first rhythm instruments or percussion instruments involved the clapping of hands, stones hit together, or other things that are useful to keep a beat. There are finds of this type that date back to the paleolithic. Some of these are ambiguous, as they can be used either as a tool or a musical instrument.
### The first flutes
The oldest flute ever discovered may be the Divje Babe flute, found in the Slovenian cave Divje Babe I in 1995. It is not certain that it is really a flute. The item in question is a piece of the femur of a young cave bear, and is about 43,000 years old. However, whether it is a musical instrument or just a bone that got chewed on is an ongoing debate.
In 2008, archaeologists discovered a bone flute in the Hohle Fels cave near Ulm, Germany. The five-holed flute has a V-shaped mouthpiece and is made from a vulture wing bone. The discovery is the oldest confirmed find of any musical instrument in history. Other flutes were also found in the cave. This flute was found next to the Venus of Hohle Fels and a short distance from the oldest known human carving. When they announced their discovery in 2009, the scientists suggested that the find showed that there was a well-established musical tradition when humans colonized Europe.
The oldest known wooden pipes were discovered near Greystones, Ireland, in 2004. A wood-lined pit contained a group of six flutes made from yew wood, between 30 and 50 cm long, tapered at one end, but without any finger holes. They may once have been strapped together.
In 1986 several bone flutes were found in Jiahu in Henan Province, China. They date to about 6,000 BC. They have between 5 and 8 holes each and were made from the hollow bones of a bird, the Red-crowned Crane. At the time of the discovery, one was still playable. The bone flute plays both the five- or seven-note scale of Xia Zhi and six-note scale of Qing Shang of the ancient Chinese musical system.
<div align="centre">
|Periods in music history|Dates|
| --- | --- |
|Prehistoric music Ancient music Medieval music Renaissance music Baroque music Classical period (music) Romantic music Modern period|(before writing) (before 350) About 350-1400 1400–1600 1600–1750 1740–1820 1820–1900 1900-today|
</div>
### Ancient times
It is not known what the earliest human music was like. Some architecture and paintings are thousands of years old, but old music could not survive until people learned to write it down. The only way we can guess about early music is by looking at very old paintings that show people playing musical instruments, or by finding instruments in archaeological digs (digging underground to find old things). The earliest piece of music that was ever written down and that has not been lost was discovered on a tablet written in Hurrian, a language spoken in and around northern Mesopotamia (where Iraq is today), from about 1500 BC.
### Middle Ages
Another surviving piece of early written music was a round called _Sumer Is Icumen In_. It was written down by a monk around the year 1250. Much of the music in the Middle Ages (roughly 450-1420) was folk music played by working people who wanted to sing or dance. When people played instruments, they were usually playing for dancers. However, most of the music that was written down was for the Catholic church. This music was written for monks to sing in church. It is called Chant (or Gregorian chant).
### Renaissance
In the Renaissance (roughly 1400–1550) there was a lot of music, and many composers wrote music that has survived so that it can be performed, played or sung today. Many new types of art and music was made during this time.
Some music was written for use in church services (sacred music) by the Italian composer Giovanni da Palestrina (1525–1594). In Palestrina's music, many singers sing together (this is called a choir). There was also plenty of music not written for the church, such as happy dance music and romantic love songs. Popular instruments during the Renaissance included the viols (a string instrument played with a bow), lutes (a plucked stringed instrument that is a little like a guitar), and the virginal, a small, quiet keyboard instrument.
### Baroque
The Baroque (roughly 1600–1740) was a Western cultural era. It emphasised drama and splendor in sculpture, painting, literature, dance, and music. In music, the term 'Baroque' applies to the final period of dominance of imitative counterpoint, where different voices and instruments echo each other but at different pitches, sometimes inverting the echo, and even reversing thematic material.
The popularity and success of the Baroque style was encouraged by the Roman Catholic Church which had decided at the time of the Council of Trent that the arts should communicate religious themes in direct and emotional involvement. The upper class also saw the dramatic style of Baroque architecture and art as a means of impressing visitors and expressing triumphant power and control. Baroque palaces are built around an entrance of courts, grand staircases and reception rooms of sequentially increasing opulence. In similar profusions of detail, art, music, architecture, and literature inspired each other in the Baroque cultural movement as artists explored what they could create from repeated and varied patterns. Some traits and aspects of Baroque paintings that differentiate this style from others are the abundant amount of details, often bright polychromy, less realistic faces of subjects, and an overall sense of awe, which was one of the goals in Baroque art.
The word baroque probably derives from the ancient Portuguese noun "barroco" which is a pearl that is not round but of unpredictable and elaborate shape. Hence, in informal usage, the word baroque can simply mean that something is "elaborate", with many details, without reference to the Baroque styles of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
### Classical period
In western music, the classical period means music from about 1750 to 1825. It was the time of composers like Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Ludwig van Beethoven. Orchestras became bigger, and composers often wrote longer pieces of music called symphonies that had several sections (called movements). Some movements of a symphony were loud and fast; other movements were quiet and sad. The form of a piece of music was very important at this time. Music had to have a nice 'shape'. They often used a structure which was called sonata form.
Another important type of music was the string quartet, which is a piece of music written for two violins, a viola, and a violoncello. Like symphonies, string quartet music had several sections. Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven each wrote many famous string quartets.
The piano was invented during this time. Composers liked the piano, because it could be used to play dynamics (getting louder or getting softer). Other popular instruments included the violin, the violoncello, the flute, the clarinet, and the oboe.
### Romantic period
The 19th century is called the Romantic period. Composers were particularly interested in conveying their emotions through music. An important instrument from the Romantic period was the piano. Some composers, such as Frederic Chopin, wrote subdued, expressive, quietly emotional piano pieces. Often music described a feeling or told a story using sounds. Franz Schubert, for example, wrote songs (called Lied, the German word for "song") for a singer accompanied by a piano player; these Lieder (plural of Lied) told stories by using the lyrics (words) of the song and by the imaginative piano accompaniments. Richard Strauss and Franz Liszt both created narratives and told stories using only music, which is called a tone poem, while Franz Liszt and Johannes Brahms used the piano to play loud, dramatic, strongly emotional music.
Many composers began writing music for bigger orchestras, with as many as 100 instruments. It was the period of "Nationalism" (the feeling of being proud of one's country) when many composers made music using folksong or melodies from their country. Lots of famous composers lived at this time such as Franz Schubert, Felix Mendelssohn, Frederic Chopin, Johannes Brahms, Pyotr Tchaikovsky and Richard Wagner.
### Modern times
From about 1900 onwards is called the "modern period". Many 20th century composers wanted to compose music that sounded different from the Classical and Romantic music. Modern composers searched for new ideas, such as using new instruments, different forms, different sounds, or different harmonies.
The composer Arnold Schoenberg (1874–1951) wrote pieces which were atonal (meaning that they did not sound as if they were in any clear musical key). Later, Schoenberg invented a new system for writing music called twelve-tone system. Music written with the twelve-tone system sounds strange to some, but is mathematical in nature, often making sense only after careful study. Pure twelve-tone music was popular among academics in the fifties and sixties, but some composers such as Benjamin Britten use it today, when it is necessary to get a certain feel.
One of the most important 20th-century composers, Igor Stravinsky (1882–1971), wrote music with very complicated (difficult) chords (groups of notes that are played together) and rhythms. Some composers thought music was getting too complicated and so they wrote Minimalist pieces which use very simple ideas. In the 1950s and 1960s, composers such as Karlheinz Stockhausen experimented with electronic music, using electronic circuits, amplifiers and loudspeakers. In the 1970s, composers began using electronic synthesizers and musical instruments from rock and roll music, such as the electric guitar. They used these new instruments to make new sounds.
Composers writing in the 1990s and the 2000s, such as John Adams (born 1947) and James MacMillan (born 1959) often use a mixture of all these ideas, but they like to write tonal music with easy tunes as well.
#### Electronic music
Music can be produced electronically. This is most commonly done by computers, keyboards, electric guitars and disk tables. They can mimic traditional instruments, and also produce very different sounds. 21st-century electronic music is commonly made with computer programs and hardware mixers.
#### Jazz
Jazz is a type of music that was invented around 1900 in New Orleans in the south of the USA. There were many black musicians living there who played a style of music called blues music. Blues music was influenced by African music (because the black people in the United States had come to the United States as slaves. They were taken from Africa by force). Blues music was a music that was played by singing, using the harmonica, or the acoustic guitar. Many blues songs had sad lyrics about sad emotions (feelings) or sad experiences, such as losing a job, a family member dying, or having to go to jail (prison).
Jazz music mixed together blues music with European music. Some black composers such as Scott Joplin were writing music called ragtime, which had a very different rhythm from standard European music, but used notes that were similar to some European music. Ragtime was a big influence on early jazz, called Dixieland jazz. Jazz musicians used instruments such as the trumpet, saxophone, and clarinet were used for the tunes (melodies), drums for percussion and plucked double bass, piano, banjo and guitar for the background rhythm (rhythmic section). Jazz is usually improvised: the players make up (invent) the music as they play. Even though jazz musicians are making up the music, jazz music still has rules; the musicians play a series of chords (groups of notes) in order.
Jazz music has a swinging rhythm. The word "swing" is hard to explain. For a rhythm to be a "swinging rhythm" it has to feel natural and relaxed. Swing rhythm is not even like a march. There is a long-short feel instead of a same-same feel. A "swinging rhythm" also gets the people who are listening excited, because they like the sound of it. Some people say that a "swinging rhythm" happens when all the jazz musicians start to feel the same pulse and energy from the song. If a jazz band plays very well together, people will say "that is a swinging jazz band" or "that band really swings well."
Jazz influenced other types of music like the Western art music from the 1920s and 1930s. Art music composers such as James Brown and George Gershwin wrote music that was influenced by jazz. Jazz music influenced pop music songs. In the 1930s and 1940s, many pop music songs began using chords or melodies from jazz songs. One of the best known jazz musicians was Louis Armstrong (1900–1971).
#### Pop music
"Pop" music is a type of _popular_ music that many people like to listen to. The term "pop music" can be used for all kinds of music that was written to be popular. The word "pop music" was used from about 1880 onwards, when a type of music called music was popular.
Modern pop music grew out of 1950's rock and roll, (for example Chuck Berry, Bo Diddley and Sezen Aksu) and rockabilly (for example Elvis Presley and Buddy Holly). In the 1960s, The Beatles became a famous pop music group. In the 1970s, other styles of music were mixed with pop music, such as funk and soul music. Pop music generally has a heavy (strong) beat, so that it is good for dancing. Pop singers normally sing with microphones that are plugged into an amplifier and a loudspeaker.
## Musical notation
"Musical notation" is the way music is written down. Music needs to be written down in order to be saved and remembered for future performances. In this way composers (people who write music) can tell others how to play the musical piece as it was meant to be played.
### Solfège
Solfège (sometimes called solfa) is the way tones are named. It was made in order to give a name to the several tones and pitches. For example, the eight basic notes "Do, Re, Mi, Fa, So, La, Ti, Do" are just the names of the eight notes that confirm the major scale.
### Written music
Music can be written in several ways. When it is written on a staff (like in the example shown), the pitches (tones) and their duration are represented by symbols called notes. Notes are put on the lines and in the spaces between the lines. Each position says which tone must be played. The higher the note is on the staff, the higher the pitch of the tone. The lower the notes are, the lower the pitch. The duration of the notes (how long they are played for) is shown by making the note "heads" black or white, and by giving them stems and flags.
Music can also be written with letters, naming them as in the solfa "Do, Re, Mi, Fa, So, La, Ti, Do" or representing them with letters. The next table shows how each note of the solfa is represented in the Standard Notation:
|Solfa Name|Standard Notation|
| --- | --- |
|Do|C|
|Re|D|
|Mi|E|
|Fa|F|
|So|G|
|La|A|
|Ti|B|
The Standard Notation was made to simplify the lecture of music notes, although it is mostly used to represent chords and the names of the music scales.
These ways to represent music ease the way a person reads music. There are more ways to write and represent music, but they are less known and may be more complicated.
### By listening
People can enjoy music by listening to it. They can go to concerts to hear musicians perform. Classical music is usually performed in concert halls, but sometimes huge festivals are organized in which it is performed outside, in a field or stadium, like pop festivals. People can listen to music on CD's, Computers, iPods, television, the radio, cassette/record-players and even mobile phones.
There is so much music today, in elevators, shopping malls, and stores, that it often becomes a background sound that we do not really hear.
### By playing or singing
People can learn to play an instrument. Probably the most common for complete beginners is the piano or keyboard, the guitar, or the recorder (which is certainly the cheapest to buy). After they have learnt to play scales, play simple tunes and read the simplest musical notation, then they can think about which instrument for further development. They should choose an instrument that is practical for their size. For example, a very short child cannot play a full size double bass, because the double bass is over five feet high. People should choose an instrument that they enjoy playing, because playing regularly is the only way to get better. Finally, it helps to have a good teacher.
### By composing
Anyone can make up their own pieces of music. It is not difficult to compose simple songs or melodies (tunes). It's easier for people who can play an instrument themselves. All it takes is experimenting with the sounds that an instrument makes. Someone can make up a piece that tells a story, or just find a nice tune and think about ways it can be changed each time it is repeated. The instrument might be someone's own voice.
## Related pages
- Classical music
- Christmas music
- Jazz music
- Cuban music
- Musical instrument
- Orchestra
- Pop music
- Traditional pop
- Scale (music)
### Books
- The Oxfords Companion to Music, ed. Percy Scholes, London 1970
- The New Groves Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie, London 1980
## Other websites
- The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Museum
- The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame
- Music City the free music encyclopedia | high | false | false |
473 | Madrid | **Madrid** (pronounced: “mah-drid or /məˈdrɪd/) is the capital and largest city of [Spain](219832). Madrid is in the middle of Spain, in the [Community of Madrid](74854). The Community is a large area that includes the city as well as small towns and villages outside the city. 7 million people live in the Community. More than 3 million live in the city itself. It is the largest city of Spain and, at 655 m (2,100 ft) above [sea level](15087), the second highest capital in [Europe](216) (after the [Andorra](3529)n capital [Andorra la Vella](63020)). It is the second largest city in the European Union. As it is the capital city, Madrid is where the [monarch](3601) lives and also where the [government](312) meets. Madrid is the [financial](45825) centre of [Spain](219832). Many large [business](6642)es have their main offices there. It has four important footballs teams, Real Madrid, [Atlético Madrid](104260), Getafe, and Rayo Vallecano. People who live in Madrid are called madrileños.
Madrid was ruled by the [Roman](664)s from the [2nd century](37626). After AD 711 it was occupied by the Moors. In [1083](19995) Spain was ruled again by Spaniards. Catholic kings ruled the country. By the mid-[16th century](14230) it had become the capital of a very large [empire](15226). Spain was ruled by monarchs from the [House of Habsburg](65789), then the [House of Bourbon](96031). After the [Spanish Civil War](24971) it was ruled by a dictator until the mid-[1970](4941)s when it became a [democracy](3195).
Although it is a modern city, a lot of its history can be seen and felt as one walks along the streets and in the large [squares](175190) of the city. There are beautiful [park](21945)s, famous buildings, art galleries and [concert hall](75325)s.
## History
During the history of [Spain](219832) many different people have lived there. Madrid's name comes from the Arabic word _magerit_, meaning “place of many streams". The Phoenicians came in 1100 BC, followed by Carthaginians, [Roman](664)s, [Vandals](67262), Visigoths and Moors. It was not until [1492](9455), when the [Catholic Monarchs](1088986) got power, that Spain became a united country. [Jew](39429)s and Moors, who had lived happily there for many years, were driven away. Spain became very rich because it conquered many overseas countries, especially in [Central](3596) and [South America](1989). However, Spain fought many wars and lost much of its treasure. It was very poor in [1936](8715) when the [Civil War](15059) was fought. General Franco became a harsh [dictator](34324) until [1975](7794) when Juan Carlos I was brought back to Spain and made king. There is now a democratic government.
In prehistoric times people lived in the area which is now Madrid. The Romans lived there for several centuries. The origin of today’s city really starts in the [9th century](15635) when Muhammad I had a small [palace](46654) built where the Palacio Real stands today. The Moors built strong forts in Madrid in [865](902011) and put a wall round the city. These walls stood until [1476](20019) when they were knocked down. In [1561](17578) Felipe I moved the royal court from [Toledo](11582) to Madrid. Madrid had now become the capital of a very large [empire](15226). Over the next years and [decade](3977)s the Plaza Mayor was built and many great buildings and monuments, many of which still stand.
When [Ferdinand II of Aragon](41078) and Queen [Isabella of Castile](39687) came to Madrid, Spain had become a very rich country. The [16th](14230) and [17th centuries](12979) are now known as the “Golden Century”. Their grandson was the famous Charles I of Spain (also known as [Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor](25296)). He liked his court to be in Seville. His son, [Philip II](10958) (1527–1598) moved the [court](7636) to Madrid in 1561.
In the late 1800s there was a revolt, known as the First Spanish Republic. Later the monarchy was restored, but then there was a [Second Spanish Republic](902675) followed by the [Spanish Civil War](24971). The Second Spanish Republic started on 14 April 1931 and was celebrated in La puerta del Sol which is the center of the city. Madrid suffered a lot in this war. It was bombed by airplanes.
During the [dictatorship](7162) of [Francisco Franco](15526), especially during the [1960](8426)s, south Madrid became very industrialized, and many people from the rural areas moved to Madrid especially to the south east of the city.
When General Franco died and democracy was restored, Madrid became more prosperous. During the [1980](8714)s and [1990](8905)s many new buildings were put up. Also when Franco died, the Spanish monarchy returned.
Madrid has been attacked many times by terrorists. This includes the [bomb](50504)ing of a restaurant in 1985, killing 18 people and the [of trains](180972) in 2004, killing over 190 people.
## Geography
Madrid has a borderline cold semi-arid climate (_BSk_ in the [Köppen climate classification](45926)) and a hot-summer [Mediterranean climate](57758) (_Csa_ in the [Köppen climate classification](45926)). Most rain falls in [autumn](18860) and [spring](16382). The [winter](6643)s are cool because it is high up, and occasionally it [snow](4039)s. The [summer](3640)s are hot and dry. Often the temperature is above 30 °C (86 °F) in July and August and can often reach 40 °C (104 °F). At night it is much cooler. This is why many [office](18121)s and [business](6642)es are closed and people have a sleep (siesta) in the [afternoon](59661) when it is hot. Then they come out again in late afternoon and often eat dinner late at night.
## Buildings in Madrid
[Spain's Royal Palace is in Madrid](59121). It is one of the largest palaces in all of [Western Europe](45219). But the [king](410) and his family do not live there anymore; they live in a smaller palace, and only use the Royal Palace for important events, like meeting other kings and other official ceremonies. One can go inside the [Royal Palace](59121) and learn about the history of Spanish monarchy.
Other famous buildings are: The [Prado Museum](530145), the Temple of Debod, the Santiago Bernabeú Stadium and the [Cuatro Torres Business Area](310849).
## Art galleries
There are a lot of very big and important [art](6) [museum](14057)s in Madrid. The most famous ones are the Prado Museum, the Queen Sofia Museum, and the Thyssen-Bornemisza museum. These show off paintings, [sculpture](25295)s, and other works of art from some of the most famous artists in the world.
Many famous, important, and valuable works of art are in these museums. For example, the Queen Sofia museum has a famous painting by [Pablo Picasso](16298), called _Guernica_. Picasso painted this painting to show how sad and angry it made him when the [German](219828) Nazis destroyed a town in Spain called [Guernica](197108) in 1937. Picasso had said that the painting should never return to Spain until it was a [democracy](3195) again. Once that happened, they built the Queen Sofia museum just to have a good place to put it.
## Other sights
There are many other sights to see in Madrid. Many people go to see the Plaza Mayor which was a market place. The Plaza de la Villa was another famous market place. There are a lot of shops along the Gran Via. Real Madrid football fans celebrate at the Plaza de Cibeles. Two famous gates to see are the [Puerta del Sol](59120) and the [Puerta de Alcalá](59122). A more recent landmark is the [Almudena Cathedral](72677).
Madrid has some lovely parks. The Retiro Park is the most famous. The Cristal Palace can be found in this park.
The Plaza de Toros is visited by many tourists. [Bullfights](256183) take place there.
## Other websites
- [Madrid’s official tourist website](http://www.turismomadrid.es)
- [Madrid´s English on line magazine](http://www.englishwarehouse.com/index.asp)
- [French wiki entry explaining more about Guernica](http://fra.anarchopedia.org/Guernica_%28tableau%29)
- [WorldFlicks in Madrid: Photos and interesting places on Google Maps](http://wiki.worldflicks.org/madrid.html)
## Infobox (settlement)
- **name**: Madrid
- **settlement type**: capital city and Municipalities of Spain, municipality
- **imagesize**: 280
- **image flag**: Bandera de la ciudad de Madrid.svg
- **flag size**: 110px
- **flag link**: Flag of the City of Madrid
- **image shield**: Escudo de Madrid.svg
- **shield size**: 70px
- **shield link**: Coat of arms of Madrid
- **motto**:
- **pushpin map caption**: Location within Spain##Location within Europe
- **pushpin map**: Spain#Europe
- **pushpin relief**: 1
- **pushpin mapsize**: 280
- **subdivision type**: List of sovereign states, Country
- **subdivision name**: Spain
- **subdivision type1**: Autonomous communities of Spain, Autonomous community
- **subdivision name1**: Community of Madrid
- **established title**: Founded
- **established date**: 9th century
- **government type**: Ayuntamiento (Spain), _ayuntamiento_
- **governing body**: City Council of Madrid, Ayuntamiento de Madrid
- **leader title**: Mayor of Madrid, Mayor
- **leader name**: José Luis Martínez-Almeida
- **area total km2**: 604.31
- **elevation m**: 820
- **population density km2**: auto
- **population urban**: 6,345,000 ()
- **population metro**: 6,791,667 ()
- **population rank**: Ranked lists of Spanish municipalities, 1st (List of largest cities in the European Union by population within city limits, 2nd in EU)
- **population demonym**: Madrilenian, Madrilene
- **postal code type**: Postal code
- **postal code**: 28001–28080
- **area code**: +34 (Spain, ES) + 91 (Community of Madrid, M)
- **blank2 name**: Human Development Index, HDI (2018)
- **blank2 info**: 0.928 – <span style="color:#090;">very high</span>
- **timezone**: CET
- **utc offset**: +1
- **timezone dst**: CEST
- **utc offset dst**: +2 | **Madrid** (pronounced: “mah-drid or /məˈdrɪd/) is the capital and largest city of Spain. Madrid is in the middle of Spain, in the Community of Madrid. The Community is a large area that includes the city as well as small towns and villages outside the city. 7 million people live in the Community. More than 3 million live in the city itself. It is the largest city of Spain and, at 655 m (2,100 ft) above sea level, the second highest capital in Europe (after the Andorran capital Andorra la Vella). It is the second largest city in the European Union. As it is the capital city, Madrid is where the monarch lives and also where the government meets. Madrid is the financial centre of Spain. Many large businesses have their main offices there. It has four important footballs teams, Real Madrid, Atlético Madrid, Getafe, and Rayo Vallecano. People who live in Madrid are called madrileños.
Madrid was ruled by the Romans from the 2nd century. After AD 711 it was occupied by the Moors. In 1083 Spain was ruled again by Spaniards. Catholic kings ruled the country. By the mid-16th century it had become the capital of a very large empire. Spain was ruled by monarchs from the House of Habsburg, then the House of Bourbon. After the Spanish Civil War it was ruled by a dictator until the mid-1970s when it became a democracy.
Although it is a modern city, a lot of its history can be seen and felt as one walks along the streets and in the large squares of the city. There are beautiful parks, famous buildings, art galleries and concert halls.
## History
During the history of Spain many different people have lived there. Madrid's name comes from the Arabic word _magerit_, meaning “place of many streams". The Phoenicians came in 1100 BC, followed by Carthaginians, Romans, Vandals, Visigoths and Moors. It was not until 1492, when the Catholic Monarchs got power, that Spain became a united country. Jews and Moors, who had lived happily there for many years, were driven away. Spain became very rich because it conquered many overseas countries, especially in Central and South America. However, Spain fought many wars and lost much of its treasure. It was very poor in 1936 when the Civil War was fought. General Franco became a harsh dictator until 1975 when Juan Carlos I was brought back to Spain and made king. There is now a democratic government.
In prehistoric times people lived in the area which is now Madrid. The Romans lived there for several centuries. The origin of today’s city really starts in the 9th century when Muhammad I had a small palace built where the Palacio Real stands today. The Moors built strong forts in Madrid in 865 and put a wall round the city. These walls stood until 1476 when they were knocked down. In 1561 Felipe I moved the royal court from Toledo to Madrid. Madrid had now become the capital of a very large empire. Over the next years and decades the Plaza Mayor was built and many great buildings and monuments, many of which still stand.
When Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella of Castile came to Madrid, Spain had become a very rich country. The 16th and 17th centuries are now known as the “Golden Century”. Their grandson was the famous Charles I of Spain (also known as Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor). He liked his court to be in Seville. His son, Philip II (1527–1598) moved the court to Madrid in 1561.
In the late 1800s there was a revolt, known as the First Spanish Republic. Later the monarchy was restored, but then there was a Second Spanish Republic followed by the Spanish Civil War. The Second Spanish Republic started on 14 April 1931 and was celebrated in La puerta del Sol which is the center of the city. Madrid suffered a lot in this war. It was bombed by airplanes.
During the dictatorship of Francisco Franco, especially during the 1960s, south Madrid became very industrialized, and many people from the rural areas moved to Madrid especially to the south east of the city.
When General Franco died and democracy was restored, Madrid became more prosperous. During the 1980s and 1990s many new buildings were put up. Also when Franco died, the Spanish monarchy returned.
Madrid has been attacked many times by terrorists. This includes the bombing of a restaurant in 1985, killing 18 people and the of trains in 2004, killing over 190 people.
## Geography
Madrid has a borderline cold semi-arid climate (_BSk_ in the Köppen climate classification) and a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (_Csa_ in the Köppen climate classification). Most rain falls in autumn and spring. The winters are cool because it is high up, and occasionally it snows. The summers are hot and dry. Often the temperature is above 30 °C (86 °F) in July and August and can often reach 40 °C (104 °F). At night it is much cooler. This is why many offices and businesses are closed and people have a sleep (siesta) in the afternoon when it is hot. Then they come out again in late afternoon and often eat dinner late at night.
## Buildings in Madrid
Spain's Royal Palace is in Madrid. It is one of the largest palaces in all of Western Europe. But the king and his family do not live there anymore; they live in a smaller palace, and only use the Royal Palace for important events, like meeting other kings and other official ceremonies. One can go inside the Royal Palace and learn about the history of Spanish monarchy.
Other famous buildings are: The Prado Museum, the Temple of Debod, the Santiago Bernabeú Stadium and the Cuatro Torres Business Area.
## Art galleries
There are a lot of very big and important art museums in Madrid. The most famous ones are the Prado Museum, the Queen Sofia Museum, and the Thyssen-Bornemisza museum. These show off paintings, sculptures, and other works of art from some of the most famous artists in the world.
Many famous, important, and valuable works of art are in these museums. For example, the Queen Sofia museum has a famous painting by Pablo Picasso, called _Guernica_. Picasso painted this painting to show how sad and angry it made him when the German Nazis destroyed a town in Spain called Guernica in 1937. Picasso had said that the painting should never return to Spain until it was a democracy again. Once that happened, they built the Queen Sofia museum just to have a good place to put it.
## Other sights
There are many other sights to see in Madrid. Many people go to see the Plaza Mayor which was a market place. The Plaza de la Villa was another famous market place. There are a lot of shops along the Gran Via. Real Madrid football fans celebrate at the Plaza de Cibeles. Two famous gates to see are the Puerta del Sol and the Puerta de Alcalá. A more recent landmark is the Almudena Cathedral.
Madrid has some lovely parks. The Retiro Park is the most famous. The Cristal Palace can be found in this park.
The Plaza de Toros is visited by many tourists. Bullfights take place there.
## Other websites
- Madrid’s official tourist website
- Madrid´s English on line magazine
- French wiki entry explaining more about Guernica
- WorldFlicks in Madrid: Photos and interesting places on Google Maps
## Infobox (settlement)
- **name**: Madrid
- **settlement type**: capital city and Municipalities of Spain, municipality
- **imagesize**: 280
- **image flag**: Bandera de la ciudad de Madrid.svg
- **flag size**: 110px
- **flag link**: Flag of the City of Madrid
- **image shield**: Escudo de Madrid.svg
- **shield size**: 70px
- **shield link**: Coat of arms of Madrid
- **motto**:
- **pushpin map caption**: Location within Spain##Location within Europe
- **pushpin map**: Spain#Europe
- **pushpin relief**: 1
- **pushpin mapsize**: 280
- **subdivision type**: List of sovereign states, Country
- **subdivision name**: Spain
- **subdivision type1**: Autonomous communities of Spain, Autonomous community
- **subdivision name1**: Community of Madrid
- **established title**: Founded
- **established date**: 9th century
- **government type**: Ayuntamiento (Spain), _ayuntamiento_
- **governing body**: City Council of Madrid, Ayuntamiento de Madrid
- **leader title**: Mayor of Madrid, Mayor
- **leader name**: José Luis Martínez-Almeida
- **area total km2**: 604.31
- **elevation m**: 820
- **population density km2**: auto
- **population urban**: 6,345,000 ()
- **population metro**: 6,791,667 ()
- **population rank**: Ranked lists of Spanish municipalities, 1st (List of largest cities in the European Union by population within city limits, 2nd in EU)
- **population demonym**: Madrilenian, Madrilene
- **postal code type**: Postal code
- **postal code**: 28001–28080
- **area code**: +34 (Spain, ES) + 91 (Community of Madrid, M)
- **blank2 name**: Human Development Index, HDI (2018)
- **blank2 info**: 0.928 – <span style="color:#090;">very high</span>
- **timezone**: CET
- **utc offset**: +1
- **timezone dst**: CEST
- **utc offset dst**: +2 | high | false | false |
474 | Montreal | **Montreal** (, spelled _Montréal_ in [French](3597)) is a [city](144) in the country of [Canada](219589). It is the largest city in the [province](6617) of [Quebec](649) and the second-largest city in Canada. Most of the people who live in Montreal speak French.
Montreal is built on an island sitting in the [Saint Lawrence River](702). More than three million people live in the [Greater Montreal](876517) [metropolitan area](21586). At the centre of Montreal is a mountain called [Mount Royal](947315). The suburb of [Westmount](624136) is a very rich suburb on the island of Montreal.
## History
The name 'Montréal' comes from _Mont Royal_, which means 'Royal Mountain' in French. It was originally called _Ville-Marie_, or City of Mary.
Montreal has always played a very important part in the history and development of Canada. It continues to be a large Canadian industrial and commercial centre, as well as a major seaport (via the Saint Lawrence River). It once was the largest city in Canada, before [Toronto](2210) grew to be larger.
Tourists visit Montreal for its historical and cultural interest. One can visit the Old City in horse-drawn carriages, where many buildings from the earliest years stand and remind of the way of life that started in the [New World](22002), when Montreal was just a fur trading outpost belonging to [France](291) over 350 years ago.
## Geography
Montreal is in the southwest of [Quebec](649), 530 kilometres north of [New York City](566). The city itself is located on an [island](367), the Island of Montreal. Near the downtown area, there is a hill called _Mount Royal_ (_Mont Royal_ in French).
## Economy
Montreal's [economy](8377) is the second largest in [Canada](219589). The city's [port](335080) is the biggest inland port (a port that is not on the [sea](420870)) in the world. Many large corporations have their main offices in Montreal. It also hosts many international organizations like ICAO, the [World Anti-Doping Agency](719343), and IATA. The city is home to four major [Universities](884), welcoming students from all parts of Canada and from all over the world.
Montreal is also known for its [cultural](3476) production sector. Because the city has many different buildings, films are easy to film there. The [circus](218203) troupe (group) _Cirque du Soleil_ is from Montreal. The city is also known for its festivals, like the Montreal Jazz Festival and _Just For Laughs_.
Some [video game](4017) companies like [Ubisoft](921876) also have studios in Montreal.
## Culture
Montreal is the cultural capital of Quebec and French-speaking Canada.
Montreal has many beautiful [church](142)es (Montreal is referred to locally as 'the city of a hundred churches'), including the largest church in Canada, and also many important art, history, and science museums. You can also visit the location of the 1967 [World's Fair](23057), where one will find the Circuit Gilles Villeneuve [Formula One](21161) automobile race course and other attractions.
Also of interest is the site where the 1976 Summer [Olympic Games](5290) were held, and the modern architecture of the Olympic stadium (the 'Big O') and its tall inclined observation tower (the highest inclined tower in the world); now a landmark of Montreal, closed but intended to re-open in 2027 after renovation. Other attractions include the Biodome, Insectarium, Flower Gardens, and the view from the top of Mount Royal.
[Ice hockey](9451) was invented in Montreal. Many Montrealers are interested in the sport, and the city is home to its own ice hockey team called the [Montreal Canadiens](18266) who play in the [National Hockey League](8697) (NHL).
## Media
- CKAC 730
- CBFT SRC
- CFTM TVA
- CIVM [Télé-Québec](972424)
- CFJP TQS
- CFTU Canal Savoir
## Other websites
- [Official website](http://ville.montreal.qc.ca)
- [Montreal](http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Montreal) -Citizendium
## Infobox (settlement)
- **name**: Montreal
- **official name**: _Ville de Montréal_
- **settlement type**: List of cities in Quebec, City
- **image caption**: From top, left to right: Downtown Montreal skyline, Old Montreal, Notre-Dame Basilica (Montreal), Notre-Dame Basilica, Old Port of Montreal, Saint Joseph's Oratory, Olympic Stadium (Montreal), Olympic Stadium
- **image flag**: Flag of Montreal.svg
- **flag size**: 125px
- **flag link**: Flag of Montreal
- **image seal**: Coat of arms of Montreal.svg
- **seal type**: Coat of arms
- **seal size**: 95px
- **seal link**: Coat of arms of Montreal
- **blank emblem type**: Logo
- **blank emblem size**: 160px
- **nickname**: Name of Montreal#Nicknames, "MTL", "The 514", "The City of Festivals", "The City of Saints", "The City of a Hundred Steeples", "Sin City", "La Métropole"
- **motto**: Concordia Salus ("well-being through harmony")
- **map caption**: Interactive map of Montreal
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **subdivision name**: Canada
- **subdivision type1**: Provinces and Territories of Canada, Province
- **subdivision type2**: Region (Quebec), Region
- **subdivision type3**: Urban agglomerations in Quebec, UA
- **subdivision name1**: Quebec
- **subdivision name2**: Montreal (region), Montreal
- **subdivision name3**: Urban agglomeration of Montreal
- **established title**: Founded
- **established date**: May 17, 1642
- **established title1**: Incorporated
- **established date1**: 1832
- **established title2**: Constituted
- **established date2**: January 1, 2002
- **parts type**: Boroughs
- **p1**: Ahuntsic-Cartierville
- **government type**: Montreal City Council
- **leader title**: Mayor
- **leader name**: Valérie Plante
- **leader title1**: List of Canadian federal electoral districts, Federal riding
- **area total km2**: 431.50
- **area land km2**: 365.13
- **area urban km2**: 1,293.99
- **area metro km2**: 4,604.26
- **elevation min m**: 6
- **population total**: 1762949 (List of the largest population centres in Canada, 2nd)
- **population as of**: 2021
- **population density km2**: 4,828.3
- **population metro**: 4,291,732 (List of census metropolitan areas and agglomerations in Canada, 2nd)
- **population density metro km2**: 919
- **population blank1 title**: Pop <small>2016–2022</small>
- **population blank1**: 2.9%
- **population blank2 title**: Metro Dwellings
- **population blank2**: 1,929,263
- **population demonym**: Montrealer
Montréalais(e)
- **postal code type**: Canadian postal code, Postal code(s)
- **area code**: Area codes 514 and 438, 514 and 438 and 263
- **blank name sec2**: GDP (Montreal )
- **blank info sec2**: $200.9billion (2016)
- **blank1 name sec2**: GDP per capita (Montreal )
- **blank1 info sec2**: CA$49,024 (2016)
- **blank2 name**: Police
- **blank2 info**: Service de police de la Ville de Montréal, SPVM
- **blank3 name**: Ambulance
- **blank4 name**: Fire
- **p2**: Anjou, Quebec, Anjou
- **p3**: Côte-des-Neiges–Notre-Dame-de-Grâce
- **p4**: L'Île-Bizard–Sainte-Geneviève
- **p5**: LaSalle, Quebec, LaSalle
- **p6**: Lachine, Quebec, Lachine
- **p7**: Le Plateau-Mont-Royal
- **p8**: Le Sud-Ouest
- **p9**: Mercier–Hochelaga-Maisonneuve
- **p10**: Montréal-Nord
- **p11**: Outremont, Quebec, Outremont
- **p12**: Pierrefonds-Roxboro
- **p13**: Rivière-des-Prairies–Pointe-aux-Trembles
- **p14**: Rosemont–La Petite-Patrie
- **p15**: Saint-Laurent, Quebec, Saint-Laurent
- **p16**: St. Leonard, Quebec, Saint-Léonard
- **p17**: Verdun, Quebec, Verdun
- **p18**: Ville-Marie, Montreal, Ville-Marie
- **p19**: Villeray–Saint-Michel–Parc-Extension
- **leader title3**: List of Quebec provincial electoral districts, Prov. riding
- **leader title4**: Member of Parliament (Canada), MPs
- **elevation max m**: 233
- **timezone**: Eastern Time Zone, EST
- **utc offset**: −05:00
- **timezone dst**: EDT
- **utc offset dst**: −04:00 | **Montreal** (, spelled _Montréal_ in French) is a city in the country of Canada. It is the largest city in the province of Quebec and the second-largest city in Canada. Most of the people who live in Montreal speak French.
Montreal is built on an island sitting in the Saint Lawrence River. More than three million people live in the Greater Montreal metropolitan area. At the centre of Montreal is a mountain called Mount Royal. The suburb of Westmount is a very rich suburb on the island of Montreal.
## History
The name 'Montréal' comes from _Mont Royal_, which means 'Royal Mountain' in French. It was originally called _Ville-Marie_, or City of Mary.
Montreal has always played a very important part in the history and development of Canada. It continues to be a large Canadian industrial and commercial centre, as well as a major seaport (via the Saint Lawrence River). It once was the largest city in Canada, before Toronto grew to be larger.
Tourists visit Montreal for its historical and cultural interest. One can visit the Old City in horse-drawn carriages, where many buildings from the earliest years stand and remind of the way of life that started in the New World, when Montreal was just a fur trading outpost belonging to France over 350 years ago.
## Geography
Montreal is in the southwest of Quebec, 530 kilometres north of New York City. The city itself is located on an island, the Island of Montreal. Near the downtown area, there is a hill called _Mount Royal_ (_Mont Royal_ in French).
## Economy
Montreal's economy is the second largest in Canada. The city's port is the biggest inland port (a port that is not on the sea) in the world. Many large corporations have their main offices in Montreal. It also hosts many international organizations like ICAO, the World Anti-Doping Agency, and IATA. The city is home to four major Universities, welcoming students from all parts of Canada and from all over the world.
Montreal is also known for its cultural production sector. Because the city has many different buildings, films are easy to film there. The circus troupe (group) _Cirque du Soleil_ is from Montreal. The city is also known for its festivals, like the Montreal Jazz Festival and _Just For Laughs_.
Some video game companies like Ubisoft also have studios in Montreal.
## Culture
Montreal is the cultural capital of Quebec and French-speaking Canada.
Montreal has many beautiful churches (Montreal is referred to locally as 'the city of a hundred churches'), including the largest church in Canada, and also many important art, history, and science museums. You can also visit the location of the 1967 World's Fair, where one will find the Circuit Gilles Villeneuve Formula One automobile race course and other attractions.
Also of interest is the site where the 1976 Summer Olympic Games were held, and the modern architecture of the Olympic stadium (the 'Big O') and its tall inclined observation tower (the highest inclined tower in the world); now a landmark of Montreal, closed but intended to re-open in 2027 after renovation. Other attractions include the Biodome, Insectarium, Flower Gardens, and the view from the top of Mount Royal.
Ice hockey was invented in Montreal. Many Montrealers are interested in the sport, and the city is home to its own ice hockey team called the Montreal Canadiens who play in the National Hockey League (NHL).
## Media
- CKAC 730
- CBFT SRC
- CFTM TVA
- CIVM Télé-Québec
- CFJP TQS
- CFTU Canal Savoir
## Other websites
- Official website
- Montreal -Citizendium
## Infobox (settlement)
- **name**: Montreal
- **official name**: _Ville de Montréal_
- **settlement type**: List of cities in Quebec, City
- **image caption**: From top, left to right: Downtown Montreal skyline, Old Montreal, Notre-Dame Basilica (Montreal), Notre-Dame Basilica, Old Port of Montreal, Saint Joseph's Oratory, Olympic Stadium (Montreal), Olympic Stadium
- **image flag**: Flag of Montreal.svg
- **flag size**: 125px
- **flag link**: Flag of Montreal
- **image seal**: Coat of arms of Montreal.svg
- **seal type**: Coat of arms
- **seal size**: 95px
- **seal link**: Coat of arms of Montreal
- **blank emblem type**: Logo
- **blank emblem size**: 160px
- **nickname**: Name of Montreal#Nicknames, "MTL", "The 514", "The City of Festivals", "The City of Saints", "The City of a Hundred Steeples", "Sin City", "La Métropole"
- **motto**: Concordia Salus ("well-being through harmony")
- **map caption**: Interactive map of Montreal
- **subdivision type**: Country
- **subdivision name**: Canada
- **subdivision type1**: Provinces and Territories of Canada, Province
- **subdivision type2**: Region (Quebec), Region
- **subdivision type3**: Urban agglomerations in Quebec, UA
- **subdivision name1**: Quebec
- **subdivision name2**: Montreal (region), Montreal
- **subdivision name3**: Urban agglomeration of Montreal
- **established title**: Founded
- **established date**: May 17, 1642
- **established title1**: Incorporated
- **established date1**: 1832
- **established title2**: Constituted
- **established date2**: January 1, 2002
- **parts type**: Boroughs
- **p1**: Ahuntsic-Cartierville
- **government type**: Montreal City Council
- **leader title**: Mayor
- **leader name**: Valérie Plante
- **leader title1**: List of Canadian federal electoral districts, Federal riding
- **area total km2**: 431.50
- **area land km2**: 365.13
- **area urban km2**: 1,293.99
- **area metro km2**: 4,604.26
- **elevation min m**: 6
- **population total**: 1762949 (List of the largest population centres in Canada, 2nd)
- **population as of**: 2021
- **population density km2**: 4,828.3
- **population metro**: 4,291,732 (List of census metropolitan areas and agglomerations in Canada, 2nd)
- **population density metro km2**: 919
- **population blank1 title**: Pop <small>2016–2022</small>
- **population blank1**: 2.9%
- **population blank2 title**: Metro Dwellings
- **population blank2**: 1,929,263
- **population demonym**: Montrealer
Montréalais(e)
- **postal code type**: Canadian postal code, Postal code(s)
- **area code**: Area codes 514 and 438, 514 and 438 and 263
- **blank name sec2**: GDP (Montreal )
- **blank info sec2**: $200.9billion (2016)
- **blank1 name sec2**: GDP per capita (Montreal )
- **blank1 info sec2**: CA$49,024 (2016)
- **blank2 name**: Police
- **blank2 info**: Service de police de la Ville de Montréal, SPVM
- **blank3 name**: Ambulance
- **blank4 name**: Fire
- **p2**: Anjou, Quebec, Anjou
- **p3**: Côte-des-Neiges–Notre-Dame-de-Grâce
- **p4**: L'Île-Bizard–Sainte-Geneviève
- **p5**: LaSalle, Quebec, LaSalle
- **p6**: Lachine, Quebec, Lachine
- **p7**: Le Plateau-Mont-Royal
- **p8**: Le Sud-Ouest
- **p9**: Mercier–Hochelaga-Maisonneuve
- **p10**: Montréal-Nord
- **p11**: Outremont, Quebec, Outremont
- **p12**: Pierrefonds-Roxboro
- **p13**: Rivière-des-Prairies–Pointe-aux-Trembles
- **p14**: Rosemont–La Petite-Patrie
- **p15**: Saint-Laurent, Quebec, Saint-Laurent
- **p16**: St. Leonard, Quebec, Saint-Léonard
- **p17**: Verdun, Quebec, Verdun
- **p18**: Ville-Marie, Montreal, Ville-Marie
- **p19**: Villeray–Saint-Michel–Parc-Extension
- **leader title3**: List of Quebec provincial electoral districts, Prov. riding
- **leader title4**: Member of Parliament (Canada), MPs
- **elevation max m**: 233
- **timezone**: Eastern Time Zone, EST
- **utc offset**: −05:00
- **timezone dst**: EDT
- **utc offset dst**: −04:00 | high | false | false |
476 | Macadamia nut | The **macadamia nut** is the fruit of a [tree](847) that first came from the east [coast](7717) of [Australia](27). There is
more than one kind of Macadamia tree. Only two kinds are grown for [food](280).
The tree is an [evergreen](21015) (stays green all year long). It grows up to high. It has groups of small white [flower](7947)s. It grows best in subtropical (wet and always warm) climates. It needs well-drained [soil](7117) (water can flow away easily) and of rain a year.
The nutmeat (the soft part inside the shell that can be eaten) is mostly a creamy white color. Sometimes it looks a bit yellow. It has a [flavor](3940) that many people like. Macadamias are eaten roasted (cooked) by themselves. They are used in [cookie](47144)s, [cake](4899)s, [pastries](60337), and [candies](55430). People use them like [almond](45659)s and [cashew](173326)s as part of cooked meals. This is an [Oriental](85954) style of cooking.
The first [commercial](50639) [orchard](460929) was started in Australia in the late 1880s. Commercial production started in [Hawaii](332) during the 1920s. Production later spread to [California](3009), [Mexico](1935), and other places with warm [climate](1970).
Macadamias are [poison](6087)ous to [dog](3632)s. A dog usually needs 24 to 48 hours to recover fully after eating macadamias.The plant is in the [Proteaceae](80869) family of flowering plants. | The **macadamia nut** is the fruit of a tree that first came from the east coast of Australia. There is
more than one kind of Macadamia tree. Only two kinds are grown for food.
The tree is an evergreen (stays green all year long). It grows up to high. It has groups of small white flowers. It grows best in subtropical (wet and always warm) climates. It needs well-drained soil (water can flow away easily) and of rain a year.
The nutmeat (the soft part inside the shell that can be eaten) is mostly a creamy white color. Sometimes it looks a bit yellow. It has a flavor that many people like. Macadamias are eaten roasted (cooked) by themselves. They are used in cookies, cakes, pastries, and candies. People use them like almonds and cashews as part of cooked meals. This is an Oriental style of cooking.
The first commercial orchard was started in Australia in the late 1880s. Commercial production started in Hawaii during the 1920s. Production later spread to California, Mexico, and other places with warm climate.
Macadamias are poisonous to dogs. A dog usually needs 24 to 48 hours to recover fully after eating macadamias.The plant is in the Proteaceae family of flowering plants. | medium | false | false |
477 | Maui | **Maui** is the second largest of the [Hawaiian Islands](3797), in the [United States](219587).
It has a population of just over 150,000 and is 727 square miles (1883 km²) in size. Maui is part of [Maui County](658425), [Hawaii](332). The larger (or better known) towns include Kahului, Wailuku, Lahaina, Hana, and Wailea. Main industries are [agriculture](71284) and [tourism](9185).
Maui was named for the demi-god Maui. In Hawaiian legend, he raised all the [islands](3797) from the [sea](1975). Maui is also known as the "Valley Isle" for the large fertile isthmus (narrow land connection) between two volcanoes.
## Geography
Maui is a [volcanic doublet](4483): an island formed from two volcanic mountains that are joined. The older volcano, Mauna Kahalawai, is much older and has been very worn down. In common talk it is called the West Maui Mountain. The larger volcano, Haleakala, rises above 10,000 feet (3,050 m). The last eruption of Haleakala happened over 200 years ago, and this lava flow can be seen between Ahihi Bay and La Perouse Bay on the southeast shore.
## Places
Other places on Maui popular with visitors include:
- Ī'ao Valley.
- Haleakala crater
- Road to Hāna
- Wai'ānapanapa
Golf courses on Maui include:
- Grand Waikapu Country Club
- Ka'anapali Golf Course
- Kapalua Golf Club
- Makena Golf Club
- Maui Country Club
- Pukalani Country Club
- Sandalwood Country Club
- Silversword Golf Course
- Wai'ehu Municipal Golf Course
- Wailea Golf Club | **Maui** is the second largest of the Hawaiian Islands, in the United States.
It has a population of just over 150,000 and is 727 square miles (1883 km²) in size. Maui is part of Maui County, Hawaii. The larger (or better known) towns include Kahului, Wailuku, Lahaina, Hana, and Wailea. Main industries are agriculture and tourism.
Maui was named for the demi-god Maui. In Hawaiian legend, he raised all the islands from the sea. Maui is also known as the "Valley Isle" for the large fertile isthmus (narrow land connection) between two volcanoes.
## Geography
Maui is a volcanic doublet: an island formed from two volcanic mountains that are joined. The older volcano, Mauna Kahalawai, is much older and has been very worn down. In common talk it is called the West Maui Mountain. The larger volcano, Haleakala, rises above 10,000 feet (3,050 m). The last eruption of Haleakala happened over 200 years ago, and this lava flow can be seen between Ahihi Bay and La Perouse Bay on the southeast shore.
## Places
Other places on Maui popular with visitors include:
- Ī'ao Valley.
- Haleakala crater
- Road to Hāna
- Wai'ānapanapa
Golf courses on Maui include:
- Grand Waikapu Country Club
- Ka'anapali Golf Course
- Kapalua Golf Club
- Makena Golf Club
- Maui Country Club
- Pukalani Country Club
- Sandalwood Country Club
- Silversword Golf Course
- Wai'ehu Municipal Golf Course
- Wailea Golf Club | medium | false | false |
478 | Moloka'i | **Molokaʻi** (sometimes mistakenly called **Molokai**) is the fifth largest [island](367) in the U.S. [Hawaiian Islands](3797). The island is 38 [mile](501)s long and 10 miles across. Its land area is 261 square miles. The highest mountain is named Kamakou, and it is 4,970 [feet](22673) (1,514 [meters](518)) high.
Molokaʻi has many local indigenous names including Molokaʻi 'Aina Momona (land of abundance), Molokaʻi Pule O'o (land of powerful prayer), and Molokaʻi Nui A Hina (of the goddess Hina). It is one of the least developed of the Hawaiian islands.
The only big town is named Kaunakakai, which is also the main or chief [port](335080) on the island. The [airport](3610) is in Central Molokai. Also on the island is [Kalaupapa](484964), which is a place for people who have a disease called [leprosy](31143).
Molokai has many Hawaiian fish ponds along its south [shore](61046). Many of these have been cleaned and fixed. | **Molokaʻi** (sometimes mistakenly called **Molokai**) is the fifth largest island in the U.S. Hawaiian Islands. The island is 38 miles long and 10 miles across. Its land area is 261 square miles. The highest mountain is named Kamakou, and it is 4,970 feet (1,514 meters) high.
Molokaʻi has many local indigenous names including Molokaʻi 'Aina Momona (land of abundance), Molokaʻi Pule O'o (land of powerful prayer), and Molokaʻi Nui A Hina (of the goddess Hina). It is one of the least developed of the Hawaiian islands.
The only big town is named Kaunakakai, which is also the main or chief port on the island. The airport is in Central Molokai. Also on the island is Kalaupapa, which is a place for people who have a disease called leprosy.
Molokai has many Hawaiian fish ponds along its south shore. Many of these have been cleaned and fixed. | medium | false | false |
479 | Money | **Money,** also sometimes called **currency**, can be defined as anything that people use to buy goods and [service](46638)s. Money is what many people receive for selling their own things or services.
There are lots of different kinds of money in the world. Most countries have their own kind of money, such as the [United States dollar](2684) or the [Iranian rial](162897).
## History
The idea of [bartering](31935) things is very old. A long time ago, people did not buy or sell with money. Instead, they traded one thing for another to get what they wanted or needed. One person who owned many cows could trade with another person who had a lot of [wheat](14168). Each would trade a little of what he had with the other. This would support the people on his farm. Other things that were easier to carry around than cows also came to be held as valuable. This gave rise to trade items such as jewelry and spices.
When people changed from trading in things like, for example, cows and wheat to using money instead, they needed things that would last a long time. They must still have a known value, and could be carried around. The first country in the world to make metal [coin](162)s was called [Lydia](653226). These first appeared during the 7th century BC, in the western part of what is now [Turkey](2860). The Lydian coins were made of a weighed amount of precious metal and were stamped with a picture of a [lion](5714). This idea soon spread to [Greece](2133), the rest of the Mediterranean, and the rest of the world. Coins were all made to the same size and shape. In some parts of the world, different things have been used as money, like clam shells or blocks of salt.
Besides being easier to carry than cows, using money had many other advantages. Money is _easier to divide_ than many trade goods. If someone owns cows, and wants to trade for only "half a cow's worth" of wheat, he probably does not want to cut his cow in half. But if he sells his cow for money, and buys wheat with money, he can get exactly the amount he wants.
Cows die, and wheat rots. But money _lasts longer_ than most trade goods. If someone sells a cow for money, he can save that money away until he needs it. He can always leave it to his children when he dies. It can last a very long time, and he can use it at any time.
Not every cow is as good as another cow. Some cows are sick and old, and others are healthy and young. Some wheat is good and other wheat is moldy or stale. So if a person trades cows for wheat, he might have a hard time arguing over how much wheat each cow is worth. However, money is _standard_. That means one dollar is worth the same as another dollar. It is easier to add up and count money, than to add up the value of different cows or amounts of wheat.
Later, after coins had been used for hundreds of years, paper money started out as a promise to pay in coin, much like an "I.O.U." note. The first true paper money was used in [China](120) in the [10th century](15634) AD. Paper money was also printed in [Sweden](2136) between 1660 and 1664. Both times, it did not work well, and had to be stopped because the banks kept running out of coins to pay on the notes. [Massachusetts](9290) [Bay Colony](78213) printed paper money in the [1690s](21326). This time, the use became more common.
Today, most of what people think of as money is not even things you can hold. It is numbers in [bank accounts](83613), saved in computer memories. Many people still feel more comfortable using coins and paper, and do not totally trust using [electronic money](284211) on a [computer memory](82076).
## Kinds
Many types of money have been used at different times in history. These are:
- [Cowry](51471) shells
- [Commodity](50950) money
- [Convertible](18377) paper money
- Inconvertible money
- Bank deposits
- Electronic money
_Commodity money_ can be used for other purposes besides serving as a medium of exchange. We say it possesses intrinsic value, because it is useful or valuable by itself. Some examples of commodity money are [cattle](5450), [silk](4719), [gold](3260) and [silver](4679). Convertible paper money is money that is convertible into gold and silver. Gold and Silver [certificate](9617)s are convertible paper money as they can be fully convertible into gold and silver.
Inconvertible money is money that cannot be converted into gold and silver. Notes and coins are inconvertible money. They are inconvertible and are declared by the [government](312) money. Such [fiat money](711563) is a country's [legal tender](175204). Today, notes and coins are the [currencies](2140) used in bank deposits.
Types of bank deposits:
- [Demand](9438) deposits
- Savings deposits
- [Time deposit](109498)s
- Negotiable certificate
## More reading
- Ferguson, Niall (2008). _The Ascent of Money: A Financial History of the World_. Allen Lane.
- Davies, Glyn (2010). _History of Money: From Ancient Times to the Present Day_ (Fourth ed.). University of Wales Press.
## Other websites
- [Linguistic and Commodity Exchanges](http://www.egwald.ca/ubcstudent/aboriginal/exchanges.php) by Elmer G. Wiens. Examines the structural differences between barter and monetary commodity exchanges and oral and written linguistic exchanges. | **Money,** also sometimes called **currency**, can be defined as anything that people use to buy goods and services. Money is what many people receive for selling their own things or services.
There are lots of different kinds of money in the world. Most countries have their own kind of money, such as the United States dollar or the Iranian rial.
## History
The idea of bartering things is very old. A long time ago, people did not buy or sell with money. Instead, they traded one thing for another to get what they wanted or needed. One person who owned many cows could trade with another person who had a lot of wheat. Each would trade a little of what he had with the other. This would support the people on his farm. Other things that were easier to carry around than cows also came to be held as valuable. This gave rise to trade items such as jewelry and spices.
When people changed from trading in things like, for example, cows and wheat to using money instead, they needed things that would last a long time. They must still have a known value, and could be carried around. The first country in the world to make metal coins was called Lydia. These first appeared during the 7th century BC, in the western part of what is now Turkey. The Lydian coins were made of a weighed amount of precious metal and were stamped with a picture of a lion. This idea soon spread to Greece, the rest of the Mediterranean, and the rest of the world. Coins were all made to the same size and shape. In some parts of the world, different things have been used as money, like clam shells or blocks of salt.
Besides being easier to carry than cows, using money had many other advantages. Money is _easier to divide_ than many trade goods. If someone owns cows, and wants to trade for only "half a cow's worth" of wheat, he probably does not want to cut his cow in half. But if he sells his cow for money, and buys wheat with money, he can get exactly the amount he wants.
Cows die, and wheat rots. But money _lasts longer_ than most trade goods. If someone sells a cow for money, he can save that money away until he needs it. He can always leave it to his children when he dies. It can last a very long time, and he can use it at any time.
Not every cow is as good as another cow. Some cows are sick and old, and others are healthy and young. Some wheat is good and other wheat is moldy or stale. So if a person trades cows for wheat, he might have a hard time arguing over how much wheat each cow is worth. However, money is _standard_. That means one dollar is worth the same as another dollar. It is easier to add up and count money, than to add up the value of different cows or amounts of wheat.
Later, after coins had been used for hundreds of years, paper money started out as a promise to pay in coin, much like an "I.O.U." note. The first true paper money was used in China in the 10th century AD. Paper money was also printed in Sweden between 1660 and 1664. Both times, it did not work well, and had to be stopped because the banks kept running out of coins to pay on the notes. Massachusetts Bay Colony printed paper money in the 1690s. This time, the use became more common.
Today, most of what people think of as money is not even things you can hold. It is numbers in bank accounts, saved in computer memories. Many people still feel more comfortable using coins and paper, and do not totally trust using electronic money on a computer memory.
## Kinds
Many types of money have been used at different times in history. These are:
- Cowry shells
- Commodity money
- Convertible paper money
- Inconvertible money
- Bank deposits
- Electronic money
_Commodity money_ can be used for other purposes besides serving as a medium of exchange. We say it possesses intrinsic value, because it is useful or valuable by itself. Some examples of commodity money are cattle, silk, gold and silver. Convertible paper money is money that is convertible into gold and silver. Gold and Silver certificates are convertible paper money as they can be fully convertible into gold and silver.
Inconvertible money is money that cannot be converted into gold and silver. Notes and coins are inconvertible money. They are inconvertible and are declared by the government money. Such fiat money is a country's legal tender. Today, notes and coins are the currencies used in bank deposits.
Types of bank deposits:
- Demand deposits
- Savings deposits
- Time deposits
- Negotiable certificate
## More reading
- Ferguson, Niall (2008). _The Ascent of Money: A Financial History of the World_. Allen Lane.
- Davies, Glyn (2010). _History of Money: From Ancient Times to the Present Day_ (Fourth ed.). University of Wales Press.
## Other websites
- Linguistic and Commodity Exchanges by Elmer G. Wiens. Examines the structural differences between barter and monetary commodity exchanges and oral and written linguistic exchanges. | high | false | false |
482 | Multiplication | **Multiplication** is an [arithmetic](21) operation for finding the _[product](14151)_ of two [numbers](528) in [mathematics](467), and is the opposite of [division](56429). It is often represented by symbols such as or . Multiplication is the third operation in math, after addition which is the first, and subtraction which is the second. It can also be defined on number mathematical objects as well.
With [natural number](7437)s, multiplication gives the number of tiles in a [rectangle](4892), where one of the two numbers equals the number of tiles on one side, and the other number equals the number of tiles on the other side.
With [real number](18196)s, multiplication gives the [area](3926) of a [rectangle](4892) where the first number is the same as the size of one side, and the second number is the same as the size of the other side.
For example, three multiplied by five is the total of five threes [added](22) together, or the total of three fives. This can be written as 3 × 5 = 15, or spoken as "three times five equals fifteen." [Mathematicians](467) refer to the two numbers to be multiplied as "coefficients", or _"multiplicand"_ and _"multiplicator"_ separately (where multiplicand × multiplicator = product).
Multiplication between numbers is said to be commutative—when the order of the numbers does not influence the value of the product. This is true for the [integer](7436)s (whole numbers), e.g. 4 × 6 is the same as 6 × 4, and also for the [rational number](12810)s (fractions), and for all the other [real numbers](18196) (representable as a field in the continuous line), and also for [complex number](19943)s (numbers representable as a field in the plane). However, it is not true for [quaternion](912470)s (numbers representable as a ring in the four-dimensional space), [vector](3662)s or [matrices](5398).
The definition of multiplication as repeated addition provides a way to arrive at a set-theoretic interpretation of multiplication of cardinal numbers. A more accurate representation is to think of it as scaling quantities. This animation illustrates 3 being multiplied by 2, giving 6 as a result. Notice that the blue dot in the blue segment of length 3 is placed at position 1, and the blue segment is scaled so that this dot is placed at the end of the red segment (of length 2). For multiplication by any X, the blue dot will always start at 1 and end at X. This works even if X is smaller than 1, or negative.
The opposite of multiplication is [division](56429).
## Multiplication table
||scope="column"|1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||10|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|**1**|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9|10||||||||||||
|2|**4**|6|8|10|12|14|16|18|20||||||||||||
|3|6|**9**|12|15|18|21|24|27|30||||||||||||
|4|8|12|**16**|20|24|28|32|36|40||||||||||||
|5|10|15|20|**25**|30|35|40|45|50||||||||||||
|6|12|18|24|30|**36**|42|48|54|60||||||||||||
|7|14|21|28|35|42|**49**|56|63|70||||||||||||
|8|16|24|32|40|48|56|**64**|72|80||||||||||||
|9|18|27|36|45|54|63|72|**81**|90||||||||||||
|10|20|30|40|50|60|70|80|90|**100**||||||||||||
Teachers usually require their pupils to memorize the table of the first 9 numbers when teaching multiplication, so that more complex multiplication tasks can be performed.
## Related pages
- [Addition](22)
- [Division (mathematics)](56429)
- [Square number](79691)
- [Subtraction](733) | **Multiplication** is an arithmetic operation for finding the _product_ of two numbers in mathematics, and is the opposite of division. It is often represented by symbols such as or . Multiplication is the third operation in math, after addition which is the first, and subtraction which is the second. It can also be defined on number mathematical objects as well.
With natural numbers, multiplication gives the number of tiles in a rectangle, where one of the two numbers equals the number of tiles on one side, and the other number equals the number of tiles on the other side.
With real numbers, multiplication gives the area of a rectangle where the first number is the same as the size of one side, and the second number is the same as the size of the other side.
For example, three multiplied by five is the total of five threes added together, or the total of three fives. This can be written as 3 × 5 = 15, or spoken as "three times five equals fifteen." Mathematicians refer to the two numbers to be multiplied as "coefficients", or _"multiplicand"_ and _"multiplicator"_ separately (where multiplicand × multiplicator = product).
Multiplication between numbers is said to be commutative—when the order of the numbers does not influence the value of the product. This is true for the integers (whole numbers), e.g. 4 × 6 is the same as 6 × 4, and also for the rational numbers (fractions), and for all the other real numbers (representable as a field in the continuous line), and also for complex numbers (numbers representable as a field in the plane). However, it is not true for quaternions (numbers representable as a ring in the four-dimensional space), vectors or matrices.
The definition of multiplication as repeated addition provides a way to arrive at a set-theoretic interpretation of multiplication of cardinal numbers. A more accurate representation is to think of it as scaling quantities. This animation illustrates 3 being multiplied by 2, giving 6 as a result. Notice that the blue dot in the blue segment of length 3 is placed at position 1, and the blue segment is scaled so that this dot is placed at the end of the red segment (of length 2). For multiplication by any X, the blue dot will always start at 1 and end at X. This works even if X is smaller than 1, or negative.
The opposite of multiplication is division.
## Multiplication table
||scope="column"|1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||10|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|**1**|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9|10||||||||||||
|2|**4**|6|8|10|12|14|16|18|20||||||||||||
|3|6|**9**|12|15|18|21|24|27|30||||||||||||
|4|8|12|**16**|20|24|28|32|36|40||||||||||||
|5|10|15|20|**25**|30|35|40|45|50||||||||||||
|6|12|18|24|30|**36**|42|48|54|60||||||||||||
|7|14|21|28|35|42|**49**|56|63|70||||||||||||
|8|16|24|32|40|48|56|**64**|72|80||||||||||||
|9|18|27|36|45|54|63|72|**81**|90||||||||||||
|10|20|30|40|50|60|70|80|90|**100**||||||||||||
Teachers usually require their pupils to memorize the table of the first 9 numbers when teaching multiplication, so that more complex multiplication tasks can be performed.
## Related pages
- Addition
- Division (mathematics)
- Square number
- Subtraction | high | false | false |
483 | Microsoft | **Microsoft Corporation** is an [American](27105) [company](114693) that makes computer [software](1987) and [video game](4017)s. [Bill Gates](107672) and [Paul Allen](37651) started the company in 1975. Microsoft makes [Microsoft Windows](927), [Microsoft Office](14233) (including [Microsoft Word](5549)), [Edge](510727), [MSN](12685) and [Xbox](639736), among others. Most Microsoft [programs](2957) cannot be [download](3625)ed for free–people have to buy them in a shop or online. Some products (like the Windows [operating system](587)) are often already installed when people buy a new [computer](112).
## Software
- [Microsoft Windows](927) is an [operating system](587), which means that it is the basic software that makes people's computers work and lets other programs work. The majority of desktop and [laptop](46816) computers run Windows, and so do some [tablet computer](286962)s and a few [smartphone](278704)s. The latest version of Windows is [Windows 11](850193). The latest server version is Windows Server 2025.
- [Microsoft Office](14233) is an [office suite](116688). It lets people write documents on their computer with [Microsoft Word](5549), make charts and graphs with [Microsoft Excel](121521), make presentations with [Microsoft PowerPoint](49955), and send email with [Microsoft Outlook](7382). Microsoft SharePoint is a server tool included in [Microsoft Office](14233) (2007, 2013). Microsoft Expression series was a web development tool.
- Internet Explorer is a piece of software that lets people look at things online (known as [browsing](912)) and download things from the [Internet](362). In 2015, it was replaced by [Microsoft Edge](510727).
- Microsoft also makes other programs for the Internet. Many of them are called [Windows Live](272420) services, with the name Windows Live put in front of the old name of the service, like Windows Live Hotmail. After 2012, the Windows Live name was less used.
- [Microsoft Bing](191713) is an internet [search engine](774) for finding things online. Bing Maps shows [map](7647)s.
- Microsoft [BASIC](59846) is the very first product made by Microsoft. It was created in 1975.
- Xenix is the first operating system licensed and then developed by Microsoft in the late 1970s.
- [MS-DOS](16972) is the second operating system acquired and then developed by Microsoft in 1981, used for primitive computers and terminals.
- [Minecraft](287585) and many other programs have been bought by Microsoft and developed further.
## Services
Although Microsoft is best known for its software products, the company also runs a number of web services. They include:
- Outlook.com is a [webmail](186378) service. When Microsoft created this service in 1996, it was called Hotmail. It is used to send and receive email, manage a [calendar](7517) of events and tasks, and a list of contacts (such as phone numbers and email addresses).
- [OneDrive](330205) is a [file hosting service](418811). It was started in 2007 and was called "SkyDrive" at the time. Users can upload files to a web server and get them on a variety of devices, including PCs and [mobile device](86729)s.
- [Skype](87144) is a [VoIP](139541) and social media service. It was not created by Microsoft, but by a company called Skype SARL, which was later bought out by Microsoft. The Skype program or [mobile app](502100) lets people make phone calls through the Internet to other Skype users for free and, for a fee, landline phones.
- [LinkedIn](379237) is a social networking service for people with professional [job](11487)s. Like Skype, it was not created by Microsoft but by another company which Microsoft later bought. The site lets people post information about their jobs and skills to help [employer](46901)s look for new people to hire.
- [MSN](12685) is a [web portal](21900) where people can read [news](14059) and get information about different topics. It was created in 1995 and at one point its services were made under the [brand](32256) name of "Windows Live". MSN used to have an [instant messaging](21656) service, MSN Messenger, but that has since become part of Skype.
- [Bing](191713) is a [search engine](774) similar to [Google](310). It used to be under the MSN brand and was later known as Live Search, but became its own service in 2009. Bing is known for the different images that appear on the background of its home page.
## Hardware
Microsoft has also made a wide variety of [hardware](4645) over the years. Among them are computer accessories like [mice](4690), keyboards, and [webcam](21038)s.
The company also makes and promotes a [video game console](3788), [Xbox](639736). It lets people play video games on their [television](1999)s. The games were first stored on [CD](8026)s, but many recent games are downloaded from the Internet. There have been three generations of Xbox. The first generation came out in 2001 and was just called Xbox, while the second, the [Xbox 360](10814), was released in 2005. The third model is the [Xbox One](399685) in May 2013. In 2020, Microsoft introduced Xbox Series X and Xbox Series S. Beginning with the Xbox 360, Microsoft introduced Xbox Live, which lets people play games online against other people anywhere in the world. The Xbox has become very popular and more than 150 million units have been sold worldwide. Because of this, Microsoft is considered one of the three big companies that make video game consoles, along with [Nintendo](7604), [Sony](10813) and [Apple](39).
Most recently, [Microsoft](483) has also started to make its own [PC](16971)s, called the [Surface](1148829)’s. The first model was announced in 2012 and the Surface line now includes [tablets](286962) that use either [ARM](377247) or [Intel](23895) processors, two models of [laptop](46816)s called the Surface Book and Surface Laptop, an all-in-one PC called the Surface Studio, and an interactive whiteboard, the Surface Hub.
In 2014, Microsoft bought the [mobile phone](26786) division of [Nokia](23572), a [Finnish](292) company, which then became Microsoft Mobile. The sale included the Lumia family of [smartphone](278704)s, which use Microsoft's own Windows Phone platform. From 2014 to 2016, Microsoft Mobile also made [feature phone](507121)s with the Nokia brand. Then the feature phone business was sold to HMD global, which continues to produce both feature phones and [Android](244851) smartphones under license from [Nokia](23572).::.
## Other websites
- [Main Microsoft Website](http://www.microsoft.com/)
## Infobox (company)
- **name**: Microsoft Corporation
- **logo**: Microsoft logo and wordmark.svg
- **logo alt**: A square divided into four sub-squares, colored red, green, yellow and blue (clockwise), with the company name appearing to its right
- **image**: Building92microsoft.jpg
- **image caption**: Building 92 at Microsoft Corporation headquarters in Redmond, Washington, in 2016
- **type**: Public company, Public
- **isin**: US5949181045
- **founded**: in Albuquerque, New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico, U.S.
- **hq location**: Microsoft Redmond campus, One Microsoft Way
- **hq location city**: Redmond, Washington, Redmond, Washington (state), Washington
- **hq location country**: U.S.
- **area served**: Worldwide
- **revenue**: billion
- **revenue year**: 2018
- **operating income**: billion
- **income year**: 2018
- **net income**: billion
- **net income year**: 2023
- **assets**: billion
- **assets year**: December 2022
- **equity**: billion
- **equity year**: 2023
- **num employees**: 221,000
- **num employees year**: 2023
- **subsid**: GitHub
LinkedIn
- **divisions**: Microsoft Gaming
Microsoft 365
Microsoft Research
Windows and Devices Group
Microsoft Cloud
Microsoft AI
Microsoft Security
Microsoft Industry
Microsoft Business Applications
Microsoft Developer | **Microsoft Corporation** is an American company that makes computer software and video games. Bill Gates and Paul Allen started the company in 1975. Microsoft makes Microsoft Windows, Microsoft Office (including Microsoft Word), Edge, MSN and Xbox, among others. Most Microsoft programs cannot be downloaded for free–people have to buy them in a shop or online. Some products (like the Windows operating system) are often already installed when people buy a new computer.
## Software
- Microsoft Windows is an operating system, which means that it is the basic software that makes people's computers work and lets other programs work. The majority of desktop and laptop computers run Windows, and so do some tablet computers and a few smartphones. The latest version of Windows is Windows 11. The latest server version is Windows Server 2025.
- Microsoft Office is an office suite. It lets people write documents on their computer with Microsoft Word, make charts and graphs with Microsoft Excel, make presentations with Microsoft PowerPoint, and send email with Microsoft Outlook. Microsoft SharePoint is a server tool included in Microsoft Office (2007, 2013). Microsoft Expression series was a web development tool.
- Internet Explorer is a piece of software that lets people look at things online (known as browsing) and download things from the Internet. In 2015, it was replaced by Microsoft Edge.
- Microsoft also makes other programs for the Internet. Many of them are called Windows Live services, with the name Windows Live put in front of the old name of the service, like Windows Live Hotmail. After 2012, the Windows Live name was less used.
- Microsoft Bing is an internet search engine for finding things online. Bing Maps shows maps.
- Microsoft BASIC is the very first product made by Microsoft. It was created in 1975.
- Xenix is the first operating system licensed and then developed by Microsoft in the late 1970s.
- MS-DOS is the second operating system acquired and then developed by Microsoft in 1981, used for primitive computers and terminals.
- Minecraft and many other programs have been bought by Microsoft and developed further.
## Services
Although Microsoft is best known for its software products, the company also runs a number of web services. They include:
- Outlook.com is a webmail service. When Microsoft created this service in 1996, it was called Hotmail. It is used to send and receive email, manage a calendar of events and tasks, and a list of contacts (such as phone numbers and email addresses).
- OneDrive is a file hosting service. It was started in 2007 and was called "SkyDrive" at the time. Users can upload files to a web server and get them on a variety of devices, including PCs and mobile devices.
- Skype is a VoIP and social media service. It was not created by Microsoft, but by a company called Skype SARL, which was later bought out by Microsoft. The Skype program or mobile app lets people make phone calls through the Internet to other Skype users for free and, for a fee, landline phones.
- LinkedIn is a social networking service for people with professional jobs. Like Skype, it was not created by Microsoft but by another company which Microsoft later bought. The site lets people post information about their jobs and skills to help employers look for new people to hire.
- MSN is a web portal where people can read news and get information about different topics. It was created in 1995 and at one point its services were made under the brand name of "Windows Live". MSN used to have an instant messaging service, MSN Messenger, but that has since become part of Skype.
- Bing is a search engine similar to Google. It used to be under the MSN brand and was later known as Live Search, but became its own service in 2009. Bing is known for the different images that appear on the background of its home page.
## Hardware
Microsoft has also made a wide variety of hardware over the years. Among them are computer accessories like mice, keyboards, and webcams.
The company also makes and promotes a video game console, Xbox. It lets people play video games on their televisions. The games were first stored on CDs, but many recent games are downloaded from the Internet. There have been three generations of Xbox. The first generation came out in 2001 and was just called Xbox, while the second, the Xbox 360, was released in 2005. The third model is the Xbox One in May 2013. In 2020, Microsoft introduced Xbox Series X and Xbox Series S. Beginning with the Xbox 360, Microsoft introduced Xbox Live, which lets people play games online against other people anywhere in the world. The Xbox has become very popular and more than 150 million units have been sold worldwide. Because of this, Microsoft is considered one of the three big companies that make video game consoles, along with Nintendo, Sony and Apple.
Most recently, Microsoft has also started to make its own PCs, called the Surface’s. The first model was announced in 2012 and the Surface line now includes tablets that use either ARM or Intel processors, two models of laptops called the Surface Book and Surface Laptop, an all-in-one PC called the Surface Studio, and an interactive whiteboard, the Surface Hub.
In 2014, Microsoft bought the mobile phone division of Nokia, a Finnish company, which then became Microsoft Mobile. The sale included the Lumia family of smartphones, which use Microsoft's own Windows Phone platform. From 2014 to 2016, Microsoft Mobile also made feature phones with the Nokia brand. Then the feature phone business was sold to HMD global, which continues to produce both feature phones and Android smartphones under license from Nokia.::.
## Other websites
- Main Microsoft Website
## Infobox (company)
- **name**: Microsoft Corporation
- **logo**: Microsoft logo and wordmark.svg
- **logo alt**: A square divided into four sub-squares, colored red, green, yellow and blue (clockwise), with the company name appearing to its right
- **image**: Building92microsoft.jpg
- **image caption**: Building 92 at Microsoft Corporation headquarters in Redmond, Washington, in 2016
- **type**: Public company, Public
- **isin**: US5949181045
- **founded**: in Albuquerque, New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico, U.S.
- **hq location**: Microsoft Redmond campus, One Microsoft Way
- **hq location city**: Redmond, Washington, Redmond, Washington (state), Washington
- **hq location country**: U.S.
- **area served**: Worldwide
- **revenue**: billion
- **revenue year**: 2018
- **operating income**: billion
- **income year**: 2018
- **net income**: billion
- **net income year**: 2023
- **assets**: billion
- **assets year**: December 2022
- **equity**: billion
- **equity year**: 2023
- **num employees**: 221,000
- **num employees year**: 2023
- **subsid**: GitHub
LinkedIn
- **divisions**: Microsoft Gaming
Microsoft 365
Microsoft Research
Windows and Devices Group
Microsoft Cloud
Microsoft AI
Microsoft Security
Microsoft Industry
Microsoft Business Applications
Microsoft Developer | high | false | false |
485 | Islamic world | The **Islamic world** or **Muslim world** consists of all people who believe in [Islam](219592). It is not an exact location, but rather a [community](17207). When they do things together as Muslims, they are the "umma", which means "community" referring to all of the believers. The faith emphasizes unity and defense of fellow Muslims, so it is common for these nations to cooperate. Recent conflicts in the Muslim world have sometimes spread because of this desire to cooperate (see below). It is also likely that some have been made shorter and less damaging because of it. Some might even have never started.
## Demographics
Muslims are in many countries. In the world, there are 52 nations which are Muslim majority. Almost all are Sunni. They speak about 60 languages and come from all ethnic backgrounds.
- 10.4 million Muslims in [Canada](219589) and the [United States](219587)
- 2.2 million Muslims in [Latin](7170) and [Central America](3596)
- 10.0 million Muslims in the [European Union](2132) plus Bosnia-Herzegovina and [Albania](3461)
- few or none in [Eastern Europe](45071), [Norway](3460)
- 82.4 million Muslims in [Turkey](2860)
- 284.4 million Muslims in the [Arab League](17447) including [Iraq](26175) (with about 15 million Shia, 60% of the population)
- 254.0 Muslims in [Sub-Saharan Africa](436486)
- 65.4 million Muslims (90% Shia) in [Iran](3772)
- 48.5 million Muslims in [Central Asia](29350) - in [Azerbaijan](6370), [Uzbekistan](21532), [Tajikistan](14171), [Kazakhstan](11232), [Kyrgyzstan](21874), [Turkmenistan](20205) - formerly republics of the Soviet Union.
- 26.7 million Muslims in [Russia](2964)
- 22.7 million Muslims in [Afghanistan](52)
- 230.0 million Muslims in [Pakistan](5071) _(Muslim INDIA)_
- 150.8 million Muslims in [Bangladesh](15790) (Formerly _[East Bengal](15790)_ provincial region).
- 200.1 million Muslims in Republic of India (Excluding **Muslim-majority** _[Jammu and Kashmir](731540)_) - the world's largest minority population
- 25.5 million Muslims in [China](120)
- 34.6 million Muslims in Somalia
- 196.3 million Muslims in [Indonesia](3334)
- 30.0 million Muslims in the rest of South-East Asia, especially [Malaysia](7476)
- few or none in Japan, Australia, New Zealand, Mongolia, or the South Pacific
- 1.5 billion people total
## Media
The _Al-Jazeera_ satellite TV network in the [Arabic language](8522) is a news source many Muslims watch.
In most Muslim nations, the government is the main source of news. This sometimes makes it very difficult or dangerous to make anti-government statements.
There are, however, many other news programmes and websites in the Muslim world.
## Islam in law and ethics
Islamic law exists in many variations - in Arabic it is called shariah - five schools of which were created centuries ago. These are the classical fiqh: the [Hanafi](178233) school from [India](391), [Pakistan](5071) and Bangaladesh, [West Africa](45627), [Egypt](248), the [Maliki](178202) in [North Africa](19031) and [West Africa](45627), the Shafi in [Malaysia](7476) and [Indonesia](3334), the [Hanbali](178238) in Arabia, and Jaferi in [Iran](3772) and [Iraq](26175) - where the majority is Shia. All five are very old and many Muslims feel a new fiqh must be created for modern [society](689). Islam has a method for doing this, al-urf and [ijtihad](3980) are the words to describe this method, but they have not been used in a long time, and few people are trusted enough to use them to make new laws.
So, in most of the Muslim world, people are very conservative, especially about [alcohol](132957), [adultery](19383), [abortion](13804) and women working in jobs where they are used to lure customers.
Muslim women often dress extremely modestly, and many do so by choice. But in some countries they have been forced to do so against their will. This is one of the things that causes tension between the [Western World](15897) and that of Muslims.
Islamic economics bans [debt](19145) but in most Muslim countries Western banking is allowed. This is another issue that many Muslims have with the Western world.
## Islam in politics
One quarter of the [world](6369) population share Islam as an [ethical tradition](13467).
Many people in these countries also see Islam as a political movement. In democratic countries there is usually at least one Islamic party.
Political Islam is powerful in all Muslim-majority countries. Islamic parties in [Pakistan](5071) and [Algeria](5404) have taken power.
Many in these movements call themselves Islamists, which also sometimes describes more militant Islamic groups. The relationships between these groups and their views of democracy are complex.
Some of these groups are called terrorists because they attack civilians of other non-Muslim nations, to make a political point.
## Conflicts with Israel and the US
[Israel](64543) is very unpopular in the Muslim world, because of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and the way that the state of Israel came into being in [1948](7177) which many Arabs thought was unfair.
Some Muslims see this as a fight against [Judaism](219593) or [Jew](39429)s, but not all. In [Morocco](15294) for instance, the Islamists recently invited [Jew](39429)s to join the party. Jewish groups also cooperate with Arabs in the [West Bank](21646), where Neturei Karta (anti-Zionist orthodox Jewish) leader Rabbi Mosche Hirsch served as the Minister for Jewish Affairs in the [Fatah](77644) before there was a Palestinian Authority. Like the Arabs, this small group of Jews thought the way Israel was created was not right. However, very few Jews believe this, and most support Israel as a state.
In [1979](7474) there was a big shift in the way the Muslim world dealt with the rest of the world. In that year, [Egypt](248) made peace with [Israel](64543), [Iran](3772) became an [Islamic state](281901) after a [revolution](40652), and there was an invasion of Afghanistan by the [Soviet Union](3600). A lot of things changed in that year. By [2001](3854) the [Soviet Union](3600) was gone, [Jordan](14629) had also made peace with Israel, and on September 11, 2001 there were major attacks on the U.S. - which most people believe were made to drive the United States out of the Muslim world, especially [Saudi Arabia](6350). In many ways the events of 1979 led to the events of 2001.
The 2001 invasion of Afghanistan and [2003 invasion of Iraq](30013) are called part of a War on Terrorism by the [United States](219587). Many or most Muslims see it as a War on Islam. After the invasion, the Islamic parties won more seats, and a majority of Muslims polled in many nations expressed support for [Osama bin Laden](15187) and said he would "do the right thing". Olivier Roy is a French scholar who thinks that this does not express support for [al-Qaeda](11678) or militant Islam but opposing [colonialism](23965) and what many Muslims call [racism](130911) - favourable treatment for Jews especially those living in West Bank settlements, many of whom have American or British passport, and which the [United Nations](4549) says have no right to live there.
The situation is very complicated and there are many different views of it.
## Organization
The Organization of Islamic Conference formed in [1969](2984) lets the Muslim nations work as a group. [Russia](2964) joined in [2003](3954).
The [Arab League](17447) is a smaller group of only the Arab countries.
[OPEC](32074) is another forum where issues between the Muslim and non-Muslim world come up. In [1973](8445) to protest U.S. support for Israel there was an oil embargo which caused the 1973 energy crisis.
## Related pages
- [History of Islam](54461)
- [Hajj](30045) | The **Islamic world** or **Muslim world** consists of all people who believe in Islam. It is not an exact location, but rather a community. When they do things together as Muslims, they are the "umma", which means "community" referring to all of the believers. The faith emphasizes unity and defense of fellow Muslims, so it is common for these nations to cooperate. Recent conflicts in the Muslim world have sometimes spread because of this desire to cooperate (see below). It is also likely that some have been made shorter and less damaging because of it. Some might even have never started.
## Demographics
Muslims are in many countries. In the world, there are 52 nations which are Muslim majority. Almost all are Sunni. They speak about 60 languages and come from all ethnic backgrounds.
- 10.4 million Muslims in Canada and the United States
- 2.2 million Muslims in Latin and Central America
- 10.0 million Muslims in the European Union plus Bosnia-Herzegovina and Albania
- few or none in Eastern Europe, Norway
- 82.4 million Muslims in Turkey
- 284.4 million Muslims in the Arab League including Iraq (with about 15 million Shia, 60% of the population)
- 254.0 Muslims in Sub-Saharan Africa
- 65.4 million Muslims (90% Shia) in Iran
- 48.5 million Muslims in Central Asia - in Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan - formerly republics of the Soviet Union.
- 26.7 million Muslims in Russia
- 22.7 million Muslims in Afghanistan
- 230.0 million Muslims in Pakistan _(Muslim INDIA)_
- 150.8 million Muslims in Bangladesh (Formerly _East Bengal_ provincial region).
- 200.1 million Muslims in Republic of India (Excluding **Muslim-majority** _Jammu and Kashmir_) - the world's largest minority population
- 25.5 million Muslims in China
- 34.6 million Muslims in Somalia
- 196.3 million Muslims in Indonesia
- 30.0 million Muslims in the rest of South-East Asia, especially Malaysia
- few or none in Japan, Australia, New Zealand, Mongolia, or the South Pacific
- 1.5 billion people total
## Media
The _Al-Jazeera_ satellite TV network in the Arabic language is a news source many Muslims watch.
In most Muslim nations, the government is the main source of news. This sometimes makes it very difficult or dangerous to make anti-government statements.
There are, however, many other news programmes and websites in the Muslim world.
## Islam in law and ethics
Islamic law exists in many variations - in Arabic it is called shariah - five schools of which were created centuries ago. These are the classical fiqh: the Hanafi school from India, Pakistan and Bangaladesh, West Africa, Egypt, the Maliki in North Africa and West Africa, the Shafi in Malaysia and Indonesia, the Hanbali in Arabia, and Jaferi in Iran and Iraq - where the majority is Shia. All five are very old and many Muslims feel a new fiqh must be created for modern society. Islam has a method for doing this, al-urf and ijtihad are the words to describe this method, but they have not been used in a long time, and few people are trusted enough to use them to make new laws.
So, in most of the Muslim world, people are very conservative, especially about alcohol, adultery, abortion and women working in jobs where they are used to lure customers.
Muslim women often dress extremely modestly, and many do so by choice. But in some countries they have been forced to do so against their will. This is one of the things that causes tension between the Western World and that of Muslims.
Islamic economics bans debt but in most Muslim countries Western banking is allowed. This is another issue that many Muslims have with the Western world.
## Islam in politics
One quarter of the world population share Islam as an ethical tradition.
Many people in these countries also see Islam as a political movement. In democratic countries there is usually at least one Islamic party.
Political Islam is powerful in all Muslim-majority countries. Islamic parties in Pakistan and Algeria have taken power.
Many in these movements call themselves Islamists, which also sometimes describes more militant Islamic groups. The relationships between these groups and their views of democracy are complex.
Some of these groups are called terrorists because they attack civilians of other non-Muslim nations, to make a political point.
## Conflicts with Israel and the US
Israel is very unpopular in the Muslim world, because of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and the way that the state of Israel came into being in 1948 which many Arabs thought was unfair.
Some Muslims see this as a fight against Judaism or Jews, but not all. In Morocco for instance, the Islamists recently invited Jews to join the party. Jewish groups also cooperate with Arabs in the West Bank, where Neturei Karta (anti-Zionist orthodox Jewish) leader Rabbi Mosche Hirsch served as the Minister for Jewish Affairs in the Fatah before there was a Palestinian Authority. Like the Arabs, this small group of Jews thought the way Israel was created was not right. However, very few Jews believe this, and most support Israel as a state.
In 1979 there was a big shift in the way the Muslim world dealt with the rest of the world. In that year, Egypt made peace with Israel, Iran became an Islamic state after a revolution, and there was an invasion of Afghanistan by the Soviet Union. A lot of things changed in that year. By 2001 the Soviet Union was gone, Jordan had also made peace with Israel, and on September 11, 2001 there were major attacks on the U.S. - which most people believe were made to drive the United States out of the Muslim world, especially Saudi Arabia. In many ways the events of 1979 led to the events of 2001.
The 2001 invasion of Afghanistan and 2003 invasion of Iraq are called part of a War on Terrorism by the United States. Many or most Muslims see it as a War on Islam. After the invasion, the Islamic parties won more seats, and a majority of Muslims polled in many nations expressed support for Osama bin Laden and said he would "do the right thing". Olivier Roy is a French scholar who thinks that this does not express support for al-Qaeda or militant Islam but opposing colonialism and what many Muslims call racism - favourable treatment for Jews especially those living in West Bank settlements, many of whom have American or British passport, and which the United Nations says have no right to live there.
The situation is very complicated and there are many different views of it.
## Organization
The Organization of Islamic Conference formed in 1969 lets the Muslim nations work as a group. Russia joined in 2003.
The Arab League is a smaller group of only the Arab countries.
OPEC is another forum where issues between the Muslim and non-Muslim world come up. In 1973 to protest U.S. support for Israel there was an oil embargo which caused the 1973 energy crisis.
## Related pages
- History of Islam
- Hajj | medium | false | false |
487 | Multiverse | A **multiverse** is the theory of a [conjecture](82811)d [set](21693) of multiple possible [universe](858)s, including ours, which make up [reality](8570). These universes are sometimes called **[parallel universe](309194)s**. A number of different versions have been considered.
The word "multiverse" was created in 1895 by psychologist [William James](262283) as a philosophical concept.
## The cosmological multiverse
The cosmological multiverse tries to explain why the universe we can see sometimes called is one that life can exist in. Even small changes to the way physics works would make life impossible. In a multiverse a large number of universes are randomly created and some happen to favour life emerging there. Many inhospitable universes would also have been created, but there would be no life there to observe their existence.
## The quantum multiverse
The quantum multiverse is another version in which our universe splits into alternative futures with every quantum event. This is called [Many-worlds interpretation](1062011) of [quantum mechanics](7136).
## Related pages
- [Quantum immortality](123433) | A **multiverse** is the theory of a conjectured set of multiple possible universes, including ours, which make up reality. These universes are sometimes called **parallel universes**. A number of different versions have been considered.
The word "multiverse" was created in 1895 by psychologist William James as a philosophical concept.
## The cosmological multiverse
The cosmological multiverse tries to explain why the universe we can see sometimes called is one that life can exist in. Even small changes to the way physics works would make life impossible. In a multiverse a large number of universes are randomly created and some happen to favour life emerging there. Many inhospitable universes would also have been created, but there would be no life there to observe their existence.
## The quantum multiverse
The quantum multiverse is another version in which our universe splits into alternative futures with every quantum event. This is called Many-worlds interpretation of quantum mechanics.
## Related pages
- Quantum immortality | medium | false | false |
495 | MediaWiki | **MediaWiki** is the name of the [software](1987) that runs all of the Wikimedia projects and many more. MediaWiki was released in 2002. It is a free server-based software which is licensed under the [GNU](4995) General Public License (GPL). This means it is [free content](129718), or [open source](3621).
MediaWiki is designed to be run on a large web server farm for a website that gets millions of hits per day. MediaWiki is a very powerful, scalable software and a feature-rich wiki implementation. It uses [PHP](20854) to process and display data stored in its [MySQL](56051) [database](39657). Pages use MediaWiki's Wikitext format, so that users without knowledge of [XHTML](52019) or [CSS](17262) can edit them easily.
When a user submits an edit to a page, MediaWiki writes it to the database, but without deleting the previous versions of the page, thus allowing easy reverts in case of vandalism or spamming. MediaWiki can manage image and [multimedia](61894) files, too, which are stored in the filesystem. For large wikis with lots of users, MediaWiki supports caching and can be easily coupled with Squid [proxy server](65750) software.
All Wikimedia projects run on MediaWiki version .
## Usage
Because MediaWiki is flexible, many websites that want people to contribute information use MediaWiki rather than other types of wiki software. Those operated by [Fandom](43160) are among them.
There are also some websites that use MediaWiki as a [content management](718421) system.
## Extensions
In MediaWiki, a system administrator can choose to install extensions which are provided on the main MediaWiki website. Some are from the MediaWiki developers, while others are from programmers from all around the world.
Most extensions can be download from Wikimedia's Subversion repository. However, there are some other extensions that other people host themselves.
Some extensions had been added to the main software along the development of MediaWiki. For example, the Makesysop extension is an extension to promote a user into an administrator or a bureaucrat.
There were a total of 2124 extensions as of October 4, 2013.
## Namespaces
In the default installation of MediaWiki, the software has 17 namespaces(18 actually, but one does not have a namespace), namely:
- Article (No namespace, like this page)
- Talk – for main namespace talk page
- User – the user page, also from Special:MyPage
- User talk – the user talk page, also from Special:MyTalk
- Project – The project namespace (like on this wiki, is Wikipedia)
- Project talk – The project page talk page
- File – Page for images and sounds
- File talk – Talk about the media
- MediaWiki – Software pages, can only be changed from an administrator
- MediaWiki talk – Talk about the software page, anyone can write in this namespace
- Template – for templates
- Template talk – talk about the template
- Help – Help pages (like Help:Contents)
- Help talk – talk about the help page
- Category - Categorising pages
- Category talk – talk about the category
- Special – Special pages of the MediaWiki software
- Media – Namespace to directly link to the file
Additional namespaces can be added using the settings file from the installation of MediaWiki.
## Bugs
As MediaWiki is a complex software, there would always be bugs in the software, especially for new extensions. Therefore, Wikimedia has created a [Bugzilla](270535) website for people who see a bug to tell the developers of MediaWiki.
Some extensions of MediaWiki use the Wikimedia Bugzilla, while some just use the talk pages of the extension page.
## Skins
Users can change MediaWiki's appearance. They may use one of the several "skins". At different times different skins have been default. For example, Wikipedia once used Monobook before adopting the new Vector skin in version 1.16.
A survey done by Wikimedia showed that more people prefer the Vector skin.
## More information
_More information about the software:_
- Main MediaWiki website
- MediaWiki on Meta Wiki
- MediaWiki User's Guide on Meta Wiki
- PHP script FAQ
- PHP script automatic wikification (former feature)
- How to become a MediaWiki hacker (installation advice)
## Other websites
- Wikitech-L mailing list (technical discussions regarding the development)
- Sites using MediaWiki
- [Sourceforge: MediaWiki Project page](http://sourceforge.net/projects/wikipedia/) _Now changed to MediaWiki.org_.
- [Sourceforge: MediaWiki Bug reports](http://sourceforge.net/tracker/?group_id=34373&atid=411192) _Now changed to Wikimedia Bugzilla_.
- [Sourceforge: MediaWiki Feature requests](http://sourceforge.net/tracker/?atid=411195&group_id=34373) _Now changed to Wikimedia Bugzilla_.
- Translatewiki.net – The place to translate MediaWiki messages.
- [MediWiki](https://citizendium.org/wiki/MediaWiki) -Citizendium
## Infobox (software)
- **name**: MediaWiki
- **logo**: MediaWiki-2020-icon.svg
- **collapsible**: yes
- **caption**: The Main Page of the Simple English Wikipedia which runs on MediaWiki
- **developer**: Wikimedia Foundation,
Tim Starling (release manager)
- **released**: 25 January 2002
- **latest release version**: 1.42.3
- **operating system**: Cross-platform
- **language**: More than 350 languages
- **genre**: Wiki
- **license**: GPLv2+
- **website**: [https://www.mediawiki.org/ mediawiki.org] | **MediaWiki** is the name of the software that runs all of the Wikimedia projects and many more. MediaWiki was released in 2002. It is a free server-based software which is licensed under the GNU General Public License (GPL). This means it is free content, or open source.
MediaWiki is designed to be run on a large web server farm for a website that gets millions of hits per day. MediaWiki is a very powerful, scalable software and a feature-rich wiki implementation. It uses PHP to process and display data stored in its MySQL database. Pages use MediaWiki's Wikitext format, so that users without knowledge of XHTML or CSS can edit them easily.
When a user submits an edit to a page, MediaWiki writes it to the database, but without deleting the previous versions of the page, thus allowing easy reverts in case of vandalism or spamming. MediaWiki can manage image and multimedia files, too, which are stored in the filesystem. For large wikis with lots of users, MediaWiki supports caching and can be easily coupled with Squid proxy server software.
All Wikimedia projects run on MediaWiki version .
## Usage
Because MediaWiki is flexible, many websites that want people to contribute information use MediaWiki rather than other types of wiki software. Those operated by Fandom are among them.
There are also some websites that use MediaWiki as a content management system.
## Extensions
In MediaWiki, a system administrator can choose to install extensions which are provided on the main MediaWiki website. Some are from the MediaWiki developers, while others are from programmers from all around the world.
Most extensions can be download from Wikimedia's Subversion repository. However, there are some other extensions that other people host themselves.
Some extensions had been added to the main software along the development of MediaWiki. For example, the Makesysop extension is an extension to promote a user into an administrator or a bureaucrat.
There were a total of 2124 extensions as of October 4, 2013.
## Namespaces
In the default installation of MediaWiki, the software has 17 namespaces(18 actually, but one does not have a namespace), namely:
- Article (No namespace, like this page)
- Talk – for main namespace talk page
- User – the user page, also from Special:MyPage
- User talk – the user talk page, also from Special:MyTalk
- Project – The project namespace (like on this wiki, is Wikipedia)
- Project talk – The project page talk page
- File – Page for images and sounds
- File talk – Talk about the media
- MediaWiki – Software pages, can only be changed from an administrator
- MediaWiki talk – Talk about the software page, anyone can write in this namespace
- Template – for templates
- Template talk – talk about the template
- Help – Help pages (like Help:Contents)
- Help talk – talk about the help page
- Category - Categorising pages
- Category talk – talk about the category
- Special – Special pages of the MediaWiki software
- Media – Namespace to directly link to the file
Additional namespaces can be added using the settings file from the installation of MediaWiki.
## Bugs
As MediaWiki is a complex software, there would always be bugs in the software, especially for new extensions. Therefore, Wikimedia has created a Bugzilla website for people who see a bug to tell the developers of MediaWiki.
Some extensions of MediaWiki use the Wikimedia Bugzilla, while some just use the talk pages of the extension page.
## Skins
Users can change MediaWiki's appearance. They may use one of the several "skins". At different times different skins have been default. For example, Wikipedia once used Monobook before adopting the new Vector skin in version 1.16.
A survey done by Wikimedia showed that more people prefer the Vector skin.
## More information
_More information about the software:_
- Main MediaWiki website
- MediaWiki on Meta Wiki
- MediaWiki User's Guide on Meta Wiki
- PHP script FAQ
- PHP script automatic wikification (former feature)
- How to become a MediaWiki hacker (installation advice)
## Other websites
- Wikitech-L mailing list (technical discussions regarding the development)
- Sites using MediaWiki
- Sourceforge: MediaWiki Project page _Now changed to MediaWiki.org_.
- Sourceforge: MediaWiki Bug reports _Now changed to Wikimedia Bugzilla_.
- Sourceforge: MediaWiki Feature requests _Now changed to Wikimedia Bugzilla_.
- Translatewiki.net – The place to translate MediaWiki messages.
- MediWiki -Citizendium
## Infobox (software)
- **name**: MediaWiki
- **logo**: MediaWiki-2020-icon.svg
- **collapsible**: yes
- **caption**: The Main Page of the Simple English Wikipedia which runs on MediaWiki
- **developer**: Wikimedia Foundation,
Tim Starling (release manager)
- **released**: 25 January 2002
- **latest release version**: 1.42.3
- **operating system**: Cross-platform
- **language**: More than 350 languages
- **genre**: Wiki
- **license**: GPLv2+
- **website**: [https://www.mediawiki.org/ mediawiki.org] | medium | false | false |
497 | First language | A **first language** (also **mother language**, **mother tongue**, **native language**, **arterial language**, or **L1**) often means the [language](419) that a person learns first. It helps one understand words and concepts in the style of that language. Sometimes, but not often, _first language_ means the language that a person speaks best (the [second language](9679) is then spoken less well than the first language, etc.). In that sense, a person could have more than one first or second language. The first languages of the national majority usually are to be recognized as [national language](70630)s of the nation.
## Related pages
- [Second language](9679) | A **first language** (also **mother language**, **mother tongue**, **native language**, **arterial language**, or **L1**) often means the language that a person learns first. It helps one understand words and concepts in the style of that language. Sometimes, but not often, _first language_ means the language that a person speaks best (the second language is then spoken less well than the first language, etc.). In that sense, a person could have more than one first or second language. The first languages of the national majority usually are to be recognized as national languages of the nation.
## Related pages
- Second language | medium | false | false |
500 | Mustache | The hair that grows on the upper [lip](40778) of some men is called a **mustache**. The hair that grows on the sides of the [face](4061) and the [chin](44255) of some men is called a [beard](94). Some men have a lot of hair and a big mustache, and some have very little. In the modern world, many men shave part or all of their mustaches, or cut their mustache so it does not get very long. A chin [beard](94) with no mustache is called a [goatee](318), whilst a chin [beard](94) with a mustache is known as a Van Dyke.
The earliest [facial hair](94) above the lip, as a style, is credited to the [Iron Age](5291) [Celts](49725). [Diodorus Siculus](517185), a Greek historian, wrote this about the Celtic people:
Mustache in [United Kingdom](856) and [Commonwealth of Nations](31668) is spelled moustache.
Some [animal](62)s such as [walrus](111381)es also have hair like this, and people sometimes also call this hair a mustache. | The hair that grows on the upper lip of some men is called a **mustache**. The hair that grows on the sides of the face and the chin of some men is called a beard. Some men have a lot of hair and a big mustache, and some have very little. In the modern world, many men shave part or all of their mustaches, or cut their mustache so it does not get very long. A chin beard with no mustache is called a goatee, whilst a chin beard with a mustache is known as a Van Dyke.
The earliest facial hair above the lip, as a style, is credited to the Iron Age Celts. Diodorus Siculus, a Greek historian, wrote this about the Celtic people:
Mustache in United Kingdom and Commonwealth of Nations is spelled moustache.
Some animals such as walruses also have hair like this, and people sometimes also call this hair a mustache. | medium | false | false |
501 | Mile | The **mile** (symbol: **mi**) is a unit of length. There are many different kinds of mile but _mile_ on its own usually means the **statute mile**.
## Statute mile
In the [US](219587) and the [UK](856) the word _mile_ usually means the statute mile.
|[Feet](22673)|[Yard](415607)|[Chain](46857)|[Furlong](46858)|Mile|[Kilometres](417)|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|5,280|1,760|80|8|1|1.609344|
## Nautical mile
The nautical mile is used for sea or air travel.
The nautical mile was originally defined as one minute of arc along a line of [longitude](21348) of the Earth. There are 60 minutes of arc in one degree or arc (60' = 1°). So there were 10,800 nautical miles from the North Pole to the South Pole.
Now the nautical mile is defined as 1,852 [metre](518)s.
- {|
|-
|1 nautical mile||= 1,852 [metre](518)s (by definition)
|-
|||≈ feet
|-
|||≈ statute miles
|}
The speed of a ship that travels one nautical mile in one hour is called one [knot](67804).
The similar geographical mile is 1855.3 km. It was also one minute of arc, but along a line of latitude rather than longitude.
## Roman mile
The mile was first used by the [Roman](24298)s. It comes from the [Latin](6592) phrase _mille passus_ (plural: _milia passuum_). This means "one thousand paces". A pace is the distance each foot moves when taking one step.
“the **Roman pace**, measured from the heel of one foot to the heel of the same foot in the next stride”
- {|
|-
|1 Roman mile||= 1,000 Roman paces (by definition)
|-
|||≈ 1,479 metres
|-
|||≈ 4,852 feet
|}
## Other miles
Different miles have been used throughout history in various parts of the world. In [Norway](3460) and [Sweden](2136), for example, a mil is a unit of length which is equal to 10 kilometres.
## Idioms
Even in English-speaking countries that use the metric system (for example, Australia, Canada, and New Zealand), the mile is still used in many idioms. These include:
- A _country mile_ is used [colloquially](181267) to mean a very long distance.
- _"A miss is as good as a mile"_ (failure by a narrow margin is no better than any other failure)
- _"Give him an inch and he'll take a mile"_ – a corruption of _"Give him an inch and he'll take an [ell](84462)"_ (the person in question will become [greed](19813)y if shown generosity)
- _"Missed by a mile"_ (missed by a wide margin)
- _"Go a mile a minute"_ (move very fast)
- _"Talk a mile a minute"_ (speak very fast)
- _"To go the extra mile"_ (to put in extra effort)
- _"Miles away"_ (lost in thought, or [daydream](364171)ing)
- _"Milestone"_ (an event showing a lot of progress)
## Infobox (unit)
- **name**: Mile
- **image**: Milestone, Knightsbridge, London - geograph.org.uk - 1590514.jpg
- **caption**: The distance between Westminster and London is 1 mile
- **standard**: English units of measurement, English unit
- **quantity**: length
- **symbol**: mi
- **symbol2**: m
- **units1**: SI units
- **units2**: imperial units, imperial/US customary units, US units
- **units3**: nautical units | The **mile** (symbol: **mi**) is a unit of length. There are many different kinds of mile but _mile_ on its own usually means the **statute mile**.
## Statute mile
In the US and the UK the word _mile_ usually means the statute mile.
|Feet|Yard|Chain|Furlong|Mile|Kilometres|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|5,280|1,760|80|8|1|1.609344|
## Nautical mile
The nautical mile is used for sea or air travel.
The nautical mile was originally defined as one minute of arc along a line of longitude of the Earth. There are 60 minutes of arc in one degree or arc (60' = 1°). So there were 10,800 nautical miles from the North Pole to the South Pole.
Now the nautical mile is defined as 1,852 metres.
- {|
|-
|1 nautical mile||= 1,852 metres (by definition)
|-
|||≈ feet
|-
|||≈ statute miles
|}
The speed of a ship that travels one nautical mile in one hour is called one knot.
The similar geographical mile is 1855.3 km. It was also one minute of arc, but along a line of latitude rather than longitude.
## Roman mile
The mile was first used by the Romans. It comes from the Latin phrase _mille passus_ (plural: _milia passuum_). This means "one thousand paces". A pace is the distance each foot moves when taking one step.
“the **Roman pace**, measured from the heel of one foot to the heel of the same foot in the next stride”
- {|
|-
|1 Roman mile||= 1,000 Roman paces (by definition)
|-
|||≈ 1,479 metres
|-
|||≈ 4,852 feet
|}
## Other miles
Different miles have been used throughout history in various parts of the world. In Norway and Sweden, for example, a mil is a unit of length which is equal to 10 kilometres.
## Idioms
Even in English-speaking countries that use the metric system (for example, Australia, Canada, and New Zealand), the mile is still used in many idioms. These include:
- A _country mile_ is used colloquially to mean a very long distance.
- _"A miss is as good as a mile"_ (failure by a narrow margin is no better than any other failure)
- _"Give him an inch and he'll take a mile"_ – a corruption of _"Give him an inch and he'll take an ell"_ (the person in question will become greedy if shown generosity)
- _"Missed by a mile"_ (missed by a wide margin)
- _"Go a mile a minute"_ (move very fast)
- _"Talk a mile a minute"_ (speak very fast)
- _"To go the extra mile"_ (to put in extra effort)
- _"Miles away"_ (lost in thought, or daydreaming)
- _"Milestone"_ (an event showing a lot of progress)
## Infobox (unit)
- **name**: Mile
- **image**: Milestone, Knightsbridge, London - geograph.org.uk - 1590514.jpg
- **caption**: The distance between Westminster and London is 1 mile
- **standard**: English units of measurement, English unit
- **quantity**: length
- **symbol**: mi
- **symbol2**: m
- **units1**: SI units
- **units2**: imperial units, imperial/US customary units, US units
- **units3**: nautical units | high | false | false |
504 | Margarine | **Margarine** is an artificial [butter](1943). It can be made from [vegetable oil](892), or animal fat. It may also contain [skimmed milk](12294), [salt](4718) and emulsifiers. Margarine is used in many [baked](233421) products. It contains less [fat](19532) than butter, so is often chosen instead of it. There are also "low fat" margarines, which contain even less fat. However, many types of margarine are made with [hydrogenated](269312) oils. Products with hydrogenated oil have [trans fat](85366)s, which are unhealthy and can cause [heart disease](13434). Other fats, like [olive oil](23474), and [butter](1943), are a better choice for cooking. | **Margarine** is an artificial butter. It can be made from vegetable oil, or animal fat. It may also contain skimmed milk, salt and emulsifiers. Margarine is used in many baked products. It contains less fat than butter, so is often chosen instead of it. There are also "low fat" margarines, which contain even less fat. However, many types of margarine are made with hydrogenated oils. Products with hydrogenated oil have trans fats, which are unhealthy and can cause heart disease. Other fats, like olive oil, and butter, are a better choice for cooking. | medium | false | false |
505 | Milky Way | The **Milky Way** is our home [galaxy](314). It contains around 400 billion stars, including our [Sun](44408).
The Milky Way has a [diameter](9194) of as measured using the D<sub>25</sub>isophote, and is a [barred spiral galaxy](281095). The idea that the Milky Way is made of stars goes back to the [Ancient Greek](16174) philosopher [Democritus](132928).
The Milky Way has three main parts: a _disk_, where the Solar System is, a _bulge_ at the core, and an outer _halo_ all around it. Although the word "disk" suggests it is flat, the Milky Way is actually not quite flat. It is slightly warped and twisted.
This galaxy belongs to the [Local Group](303707) of three large galaxies and over 50 smaller galaxies. The Milky Way is one of the largest galaxies in the group, second to the [Andromeda Galaxy](249671). Its closest [neighbour](28373) is the [Canis Major Dwarf Galaxy](853634), which is about 25,000 light years away from the [Earth](219). The Andromeda Galaxy is moving towards the Milky Way Galaxy and will collide with it in about 3.75 billion years. The Andromeda Galaxy moves with a speed of about 1,800 kilometres per minute.
Origin: "Two of the Milky Way's earliest building blocks" are known; Shakti and Shiva seem "to be (left-overs or) remnants of two galaxies that (were joined or) merged ... with an early version of the Milky Way"; That seems to have happened "between 12 and 13 billion years ago";.
## Size
The stellar disk of the Milky Way Galaxy is about 200,000 light-years (9×10<sup>17</sup> km) in diameter, and is considered to be, on average, about 1000 light years thick.
It is estimated to contain at least 100 billion stars, and possibly up to 400 billion stars. The figure depends on the number of very low-mass, or [dwarf star](431235)s, which are hard to detect, especially more than 300 light years from our sun. Therefore, present estimates of the total number are uncertain. This can be compared to the one trillion (10<sup>12</sup>) stars of the neighbouring [Andromeda Galaxy](249671).
The stellar disc of the Milky Way does not have a sharp edge, a radius beyond which there are no stars. Rather, the number of stars drops smoothly with distance from the centre of the Galaxy. Beyond a radius of about 40,000 light years, the number of stars drops much faster, for reasons that are not understood.
Extending beyond the stellar disk is a much thicker disk of gas. Observations indicate that the gaseous disk of the Milky Way has a thickness of around 12000 light years–twice the previously accepted value.
At 220 kilometers per second it takes the [Solar System](800) about 240 million years to complete one orbit of the Galaxy (a [galactic year](1007887)).
The [Galactic halo](855124) extends outward but is limited in size by the orbits of two Milky Way satellites, the Large and the Small [Magellanic Clouds](310720), whose [closest approach](76455) is at about 180,000 light years. At this distance or beyond, the orbits of most halo objects would be disrupted by the Magellanic Clouds, and the objects would likely be ejected from the vicinity of the Milky Way.
As a guide to the relative physical scale of the Milky Way, if the Solar System out to the orbit of [Pluto](241636) were reduced to the size of a US quarter (about an inch or 25 mm in diameter), the Milky Way would have a diameter of 2,000 kilometers.
## Galactic center
The galactic disc, which bulges outward at the galactic center, has a diameter of 170–200,000 light years.
The exact distance from the Sun to the galactic center is debated. The latest estimates give distances to the Galactic center of 25–28,000 light years.
The movement of material around the galactic center shows that it has a compact object of very large mass. The intense radio source named [Sagittarius A*](435191), thought to mark the center of the Milky Way, is now confirmed to be a [supermassive black hole](171231). Most galaxies are believed to have a supermassive black hole at their center.
Most galaxies have a central bar-shaped structure composed of stars. The nature of the Milky Way's bar is actively debated, with estimates for its half-length and orientation spanning from 3,300 to 16,000 light years (short or a long bar) and 10–50 degrees. Viewed from the [Andromeda Galaxy](249671), it would be the brightest feature of our own galaxy.
### Greek mythology
In [Greek mythology](26817), [Zeus](10594) places his son (the baby Heracles) whose mother was a mortal [woman](5505) on [Hera](23114)'s [breast](13226) while she is sleeping so that the baby will drink her divine milk and become [immortal](59558). However, Hera wakes up while she is breastfeeding the baby and realizes she is nursing a baby she does not know. According to Greek mythology, she then pushes the baby away and a stream of her milk sprays the night sky, making a faint band of light known as the Milky Way.
## Related pages
- [Galaxy](314)
- [Local Group](303707)
- [List of galaxies](4414)
- [Andromeda Galaxy](249671)
- [Whirlpool Galaxy](530133)
- [IC 1101](357657)
## Infobox (galaxy)
- **name**: Milky Way
- **image**: ESO-VLT-Laser-phot-33a-07.jpg
- **image size**: 270px
- **caption**: The Milky Way's galactic center in the night sky above the Paranal Observatory (the laser creates a guide for the telescope)
- **dist ly**: (from Sun)
- **type**: Sb, Sbc, or SB(rs)bc (barred spiral galaxy)
- **mass**: 0.8–1.5 | The **Milky Way** is our home galaxy. It contains around 400 billion stars, including our Sun.
The Milky Way has a diameter of as measured using the D<sub>25</sub>isophote, and is a barred spiral galaxy. The idea that the Milky Way is made of stars goes back to the Ancient Greek philosopher Democritus.
The Milky Way has three main parts: a _disk_, where the Solar System is, a _bulge_ at the core, and an outer _halo_ all around it. Although the word "disk" suggests it is flat, the Milky Way is actually not quite flat. It is slightly warped and twisted.
This galaxy belongs to the Local Group of three large galaxies and over 50 smaller galaxies. The Milky Way is one of the largest galaxies in the group, second to the Andromeda Galaxy. Its closest neighbour is the Canis Major Dwarf Galaxy, which is about 25,000 light years away from the Earth. The Andromeda Galaxy is moving towards the Milky Way Galaxy and will collide with it in about 3.75 billion years. The Andromeda Galaxy moves with a speed of about 1,800 kilometres per minute.
Origin: "Two of the Milky Way's earliest building blocks" are known; Shakti and Shiva seem "to be (left-overs or) remnants of two galaxies that (were joined or) merged ... with an early version of the Milky Way"; That seems to have happened "between 12 and 13 billion years ago";.
## Size
The stellar disk of the Milky Way Galaxy is about 200,000 light-years (9×10<sup>17</sup> km) in diameter, and is considered to be, on average, about 1000 light years thick.
It is estimated to contain at least 100 billion stars, and possibly up to 400 billion stars. The figure depends on the number of very low-mass, or dwarf stars, which are hard to detect, especially more than 300 light years from our sun. Therefore, present estimates of the total number are uncertain. This can be compared to the one trillion (10<sup>12</sup>) stars of the neighbouring Andromeda Galaxy.
The stellar disc of the Milky Way does not have a sharp edge, a radius beyond which there are no stars. Rather, the number of stars drops smoothly with distance from the centre of the Galaxy. Beyond a radius of about 40,000 light years, the number of stars drops much faster, for reasons that are not understood.
Extending beyond the stellar disk is a much thicker disk of gas. Observations indicate that the gaseous disk of the Milky Way has a thickness of around 12000 light years–twice the previously accepted value.
At 220 kilometers per second it takes the Solar System about 240 million years to complete one orbit of the Galaxy (a galactic year).
The Galactic halo extends outward but is limited in size by the orbits of two Milky Way satellites, the Large and the Small Magellanic Clouds, whose closest approach is at about 180,000 light years. At this distance or beyond, the orbits of most halo objects would be disrupted by the Magellanic Clouds, and the objects would likely be ejected from the vicinity of the Milky Way.
As a guide to the relative physical scale of the Milky Way, if the Solar System out to the orbit of Pluto were reduced to the size of a US quarter (about an inch or 25 mm in diameter), the Milky Way would have a diameter of 2,000 kilometers.
## Galactic center
The galactic disc, which bulges outward at the galactic center, has a diameter of 170–200,000 light years.
The exact distance from the Sun to the galactic center is debated. The latest estimates give distances to the Galactic center of 25–28,000 light years.
The movement of material around the galactic center shows that it has a compact object of very large mass. The intense radio source named Sagittarius A*, thought to mark the center of the Milky Way, is now confirmed to be a supermassive black hole. Most galaxies are believed to have a supermassive black hole at their center.
Most galaxies have a central bar-shaped structure composed of stars. The nature of the Milky Way's bar is actively debated, with estimates for its half-length and orientation spanning from 3,300 to 16,000 light years (short or a long bar) and 10–50 degrees. Viewed from the Andromeda Galaxy, it would be the brightest feature of our own galaxy.
### Greek mythology
In Greek mythology, Zeus places his son (the baby Heracles) whose mother was a mortal woman on Hera's breast while she is sleeping so that the baby will drink her divine milk and become immortal. However, Hera wakes up while she is breastfeeding the baby and realizes she is nursing a baby she does not know. According to Greek mythology, she then pushes the baby away and a stream of her milk sprays the night sky, making a faint band of light known as the Milky Way.
## Related pages
- Galaxy
- Local Group
- List of galaxies
- Andromeda Galaxy
- Whirlpool Galaxy
- IC 1101
## Infobox (galaxy)
- **name**: Milky Way
- **image**: ESO-VLT-Laser-phot-33a-07.jpg
- **image size**: 270px
- **caption**: The Milky Way's galactic center in the night sky above the Paranal Observatory (the laser creates a guide for the telescope)
- **dist ly**: (from Sun)
- **type**: Sb, Sbc, or SB(rs)bc (barred spiral galaxy)
- **mass**: 0.8–1.5 | high | false | false |
508 | Movement | **Movement**, or **motion**, is the [state](798) of changing something's [position](5506) or changing where something is. A [bird](3707) that is flying is **moving**. So is a person who is walking. This is, because they change where they are. They "move" from one place to another. There are many forms of [science](700) and [mathematics](467) that are related to movement.
Because of the work of [scientist](748)s including [Galilei](4052) and [Newton](5123), we know that _position_ is [relative](38700). This means that an object's position depends on where it exists in relation to other objects. For example, a ball can be away from a [box](5102), from a [chair](24150) and away from a [table](243370). Here, the box, chair and the table helped to define the position of the ball. They acted as the reference points for the observation of the ball. By telling someone how far the ball was from other objects, they were told its relative position.
The motion of an object is also relative. It depends on how its position changes in relation to other objects. For example:
A person is sitting inside a train (Train A). The train has not started moving yet. When that person looks out the window, they see another train (Train B) . Both trains are facing the same direction. If Train B moves backwards, it appears to the person on Train A that they are moving toward Train B. If a reference point it added this can be changed. If the person can also see a pole next to the trains they will see that train A did not move and train B moved backwards.
From this, it is shown that what the movement is can not be known without a frame of reference. In this example the pole is the frame of reference.
The study of motion without considering its cause is called [kinematics](440972). Kinematics deals with terms like [speed](791), [velocity](898), and [acceleration](63). [Dynamics](703035) is the branch of [physics](591) that focuses on the causes and effects of motion. It deals with [force](3220), [inertia](7337), [work](55998), [energy](4115) and [momentum](15743).
## Animal movement
The movement of [animal](62)s is controlled by the [nervous system](52871), especially the [brain](4365) and [spinal cord](64333).
The [muscle](13744)s that control the [eye](3743) are driven by the [optic tectum](498783) in the midbrain. All the voluntary muscles in the body are controlled by motor neurons in the [spinal cord](64333) and hindbrain. Spinal motor neurons are controlled by neural circuits of the spinal cord, and by inputs from the brain. The spinal circuits do many [reflex](222941) responses, and also do rhythmic movements such as walking or swimming. The descending connections from the brain give more sophisticated control.
The brain has several areas that project directly to the spinal cord. At the highest level is the primary motor cortex. This is a strip of [tissue](13997) at the back of the [frontal lobe](314487). This tissue sends a massive projection directly to the spinal cord, through the pyramidal tract. This allows for precise voluntary control of the fine details of movements. There are other brain areas which affect movement. Among the most important secondary areas are the premotor cortex, [basal ganglia](346560), and [cerebellum](26108).
|Area|width="100"|Location|Function|
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|Spinal cord|Contains motor neurons that directly activate muscles|||
|Midbrain|Contains motor neurons that directly activate the eye muscles|||
|Hindbrain|Calibrates precision and timing of movements|||
|Forebrain|Action selection on the basis of motivation|||
|Frontal lobe|Direct cortical activation of spinal motor circuits|||
|Frontal lobe|Groups elementary movements into coordinated patterns|||
|Frontal lobe|Sequences movements into temporal patterns|||
|Frontal lobe|Planning and other [executive functions](713228)|||
In addition, the brain and spinal cord controls the [autonomic nervous system](64314). this system works by secreting [hormone](13384)s and by modulating the "smooth" muscles of the gut. The autonomic nervous system affects [heart rate](188748), [digestion](34892), [respiration](41024) rate, salivation, perspiration, [urination](20846), [sexual arousal](124859) and several other processes. Most of its functions are not under direct voluntary control. Several of them, such as respiration, can be controlled directly as well.
## Related pages
- [Energy](4115)
- [Gravity](2901)
- [Kinetics](737037)
- [Navigation](24154)
- [Kinematics](440972)
- [Atomic orbital](80857)
- [Wave function](358206)
- Transportation
- [Molecular orbital](302532)
- [Brownian motion](415677)
- [General relativity](8799)
- [Root mean square](878124)
- [Classical mechanics](13409)
- [Quantum mechanics](7136)
- [Schrödinger equation](22138)
- [Newton's laws of motion](28036)
- Kepler's laws of planetary motion
- [International System of Units](3222) (SI Units) | **Movement**, or **motion**, is the state of changing something's position or changing where something is. A bird that is flying is **moving**. So is a person who is walking. This is, because they change where they are. They "move" from one place to another. There are many forms of science and mathematics that are related to movement.
Because of the work of scientists including Galilei and Newton, we know that _position_ is relative. This means that an object's position depends on where it exists in relation to other objects. For example, a ball can be away from a box, from a chair and away from a table. Here, the box, chair and the table helped to define the position of the ball. They acted as the reference points for the observation of the ball. By telling someone how far the ball was from other objects, they were told its relative position.
The motion of an object is also relative. It depends on how its position changes in relation to other objects. For example:
A person is sitting inside a train (Train A). The train has not started moving yet. When that person looks out the window, they see another train (Train B) . Both trains are facing the same direction. If Train B moves backwards, it appears to the person on Train A that they are moving toward Train B. If a reference point it added this can be changed. If the person can also see a pole next to the trains they will see that train A did not move and train B moved backwards.
From this, it is shown that what the movement is can not be known without a frame of reference. In this example the pole is the frame of reference.
The study of motion without considering its cause is called kinematics. Kinematics deals with terms like speed, velocity, and acceleration. Dynamics is the branch of physics that focuses on the causes and effects of motion. It deals with force, inertia, work, energy and momentum.
## Animal movement
The movement of animals is controlled by the nervous system, especially the brain and spinal cord.
The muscles that control the eye are driven by the optic tectum in the midbrain. All the voluntary muscles in the body are controlled by motor neurons in the spinal cord and hindbrain. Spinal motor neurons are controlled by neural circuits of the spinal cord, and by inputs from the brain. The spinal circuits do many reflex responses, and also do rhythmic movements such as walking or swimming. The descending connections from the brain give more sophisticated control.
The brain has several areas that project directly to the spinal cord. At the highest level is the primary motor cortex. This is a strip of tissue at the back of the frontal lobe. This tissue sends a massive projection directly to the spinal cord, through the pyramidal tract. This allows for precise voluntary control of the fine details of movements. There are other brain areas which affect movement. Among the most important secondary areas are the premotor cortex, basal ganglia, and cerebellum.
|Area|width="100"|Location|Function|
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|Spinal cord|Contains motor neurons that directly activate muscles|||
|Midbrain|Contains motor neurons that directly activate the eye muscles|||
|Hindbrain|Calibrates precision and timing of movements|||
|Forebrain|Action selection on the basis of motivation|||
|Frontal lobe|Direct cortical activation of spinal motor circuits|||
|Frontal lobe|Groups elementary movements into coordinated patterns|||
|Frontal lobe|Sequences movements into temporal patterns|||
|Frontal lobe|Planning and other executive functions|||
In addition, the brain and spinal cord controls the autonomic nervous system. this system works by secreting hormones and by modulating the "smooth" muscles of the gut. The autonomic nervous system affects heart rate, digestion, respiration rate, salivation, perspiration, urination, sexual arousal and several other processes. Most of its functions are not under direct voluntary control. Several of them, such as respiration, can be controlled directly as well.
## Related pages
- Energy
- Gravity
- Kinetics
- Navigation
- Kinematics
- Atomic orbital
- Wave function
- Transportation
- Molecular orbital
- Brownian motion
- General relativity
- Root mean square
- Classical mechanics
- Quantum mechanics
- Schrödinger equation
- Newton's laws of motion
- Kepler's laws of planetary motion
- International System of Units (SI Units) | high | false | false |
510 | Metaphor | **Metaphor** is a term for a [figure of speech](57440). It does not use a word in its basic literal sense. Instead, it uses a word in a kind of comparison. We run, and we also say rivers run. We may run into trouble, especially if we run up a bill at the bar.
So a metaphor uses words to make a picture in our mind. It takes a word from its original [context](60545), and uses it in another.
- "I beat him with a stick" = literal meaning of 'beat'.
- "I beat him in an argument" = metaphorical meaning of 'beat'.
Metaphors are an essential part of language: it is not possible to speak or write without them. A simple example is the word "run". This has a basic meaning of "moving quickly" or "go with quick steps on alternate feet, never having both feet on the ground at the same time". The _Concise Oxford Dictionary_ then gives
34 other uses as a verb; 21 uses as a noun; about 50 uses in short phrases. All of these are metaphors, although we do not usually notice this.
We use metaphors to make _indirect_ comparisons, but without using '[like](450)' or 'as' – because that would be a [simile](795). A simile is a _direct_ comparison: "Jane is like a child".
A metaphor very often uses the [verb](893) 'to be': "love _is_ war", for example, not "love _is like_ war" (that is a simile).
[Poetry](3886) includes much metaphor, usually more than [prose](78105).
Spam is an example that any email user knows about – this word was originally a metaphor, from '[Spam](20675)', a type of canned meat. [Server](794)s putting unwanted email into somebody's inbox was similar to waiters putting unwanted Spam into food. This was originally suggested by a [Monty Python](3998) scene. When we use a metaphor very often and we forget the old meaning, or forget that the two meanings are connected, this is a 'dead metaphor'.
Originally _metaphor_ was a [Greek](2133) word for 'transfer'. It came from _meta_ ('beyond') and _pherein_ ('carry'). So the word _metaphor_ in English was a metaphor, too. Today in Greek, _metaphor_ is a [trolley](23853) (a thing that is pushed for carrying shopping or bags).
- Most metaphors are concepts: see [conceptual metaphor](164).
- [Idiom](371)s use metaphors, or are metaphors: for example, the [English](2843) phrase _to kick the bucket_ means _to [die](209)_.
### Description
A simple metaphor has a single link between the subject and the metaphoric vehicle. The vehicle thus has a single meaning which is transferred directly to the subject.
### Examples
- Cool down! [cool = calm]
- I'll chew on it. [chew = think]
- It was raining cats and dogs. [cats and dogs = rain]
- Max was an angel. [angel = lovely person]
In the simple metaphor, the effort to understand what the author or speaker intends is relatively low, and hence it may easily be used with a wider and less sophisticated audience.
### Description
A complex metaphor happens where a simple metaphor is based on a secondary metaphoric element. For example, using a metaphor of 'light' for 'understanding' may be complexified by saying 'throwing light' rather than 'shining light'. 'Throwing' is an extra metaphor for how light arrives.
### Examples
That lends weight to the argument.
They stood alone, frozen statues on the plain.
The ball happily danced into the net.
"But at my back I always hear
Time's wingèd chariot hurrying near
And yonder all before us lie
Deserts of vast eternity."
From 17th century English poet Andrew Marvell's poem _To His Coy Mistress_.
### Description
A compound metaphor is one where there are multiple parts in the metaphor that are used to snag the listener. These parts may be enhancement words such as adverbs, adjectives, etc.
Each part in the compound metaphor may be used to signify an additional item of meaning.
### Examples
- _Awake! for Morning in the Bowl of Night
- _Has flung the stone that puts the stars to flight_.
- _An aged man is but a paltry thing,
- _A tattered coat upon a stick..."
- Thick, primal, blind fog descended before his eyes.
- The car screeched in hated anguish, its flesh laid bare in the raucous collision.
Compound metaphors are like a multiple punch, hitting the listener repeatedly with metaphoric elements. Where the complex metaphor uses stacked layers to enhance the metaphor, the compound metaphor uses sequential words. The compound metaphor is also known as a loose metaphor.
## Live and dead metaphors
A live metaphor is one which a reader notices. A dead metaphor is one no-one notices because it has become so common in the language.
### Examples
Two people walk off a tennis court. Someone asks the loser: "What happened?".
- _"He won"_. Literal truth.
- _"He beat me"_. Obviously a dead metaphor.
- _"He thrashed me"_. This one is slightly alive.
- _The river runs_. Dead, and many variations on this theme.
- _Electricity is a fluid_. Nearly dead.
- _All our efforts are running into the sand''. Live.
## Related pages
- [Trope](379741) | **Metaphor** is a term for a figure of speech. It does not use a word in its basic literal sense. Instead, it uses a word in a kind of comparison. We run, and we also say rivers run. We may run into trouble, especially if we run up a bill at the bar.
So a metaphor uses words to make a picture in our mind. It takes a word from its original context, and uses it in another.
- "I beat him with a stick" = literal meaning of 'beat'.
- "I beat him in an argument" = metaphorical meaning of 'beat'.
Metaphors are an essential part of language: it is not possible to speak or write without them. A simple example is the word "run". This has a basic meaning of "moving quickly" or "go with quick steps on alternate feet, never having both feet on the ground at the same time". The _Concise Oxford Dictionary_ then gives
34 other uses as a verb; 21 uses as a noun; about 50 uses in short phrases. All of these are metaphors, although we do not usually notice this.
We use metaphors to make _indirect_ comparisons, but without using 'like' or 'as' – because that would be a simile. A simile is a _direct_ comparison: "Jane is like a child".
A metaphor very often uses the verb 'to be': "love _is_ war", for example, not "love _is like_ war" (that is a simile).
Poetry includes much metaphor, usually more than prose.
Spam is an example that any email user knows about – this word was originally a metaphor, from 'Spam', a type of canned meat. Servers putting unwanted email into somebody's inbox was similar to waiters putting unwanted Spam into food. This was originally suggested by a Monty Python scene. When we use a metaphor very often and we forget the old meaning, or forget that the two meanings are connected, this is a 'dead metaphor'.
Originally _metaphor_ was a Greek word for 'transfer'. It came from _meta_ ('beyond') and _pherein_ ('carry'). So the word _metaphor_ in English was a metaphor, too. Today in Greek, _metaphor_ is a trolley (a thing that is pushed for carrying shopping or bags).
- Most metaphors are concepts: see conceptual metaphor.
- Idioms use metaphors, or are metaphors: for example, the English phrase _to kick the bucket_ means _to die_.
### Description
A simple metaphor has a single link between the subject and the metaphoric vehicle. The vehicle thus has a single meaning which is transferred directly to the subject.
### Examples
- Cool down! [cool = calm]
- I'll chew on it. [chew = think]
- It was raining cats and dogs. [cats and dogs = rain]
- Max was an angel. [angel = lovely person]
In the simple metaphor, the effort to understand what the author or speaker intends is relatively low, and hence it may easily be used with a wider and less sophisticated audience.
### Description
A complex metaphor happens where a simple metaphor is based on a secondary metaphoric element. For example, using a metaphor of 'light' for 'understanding' may be complexified by saying 'throwing light' rather than 'shining light'. 'Throwing' is an extra metaphor for how light arrives.
### Examples
That lends weight to the argument.
They stood alone, frozen statues on the plain.
The ball happily danced into the net.
"But at my back I always hear
Time's wingèd chariot hurrying near
And yonder all before us lie
Deserts of vast eternity."
From 17th century English poet Andrew Marvell's poem _To His Coy Mistress_.
### Description
A compound metaphor is one where there are multiple parts in the metaphor that are used to snag the listener. These parts may be enhancement words such as adverbs, adjectives, etc.
Each part in the compound metaphor may be used to signify an additional item of meaning.
### Examples
- _Awake! for Morning in the Bowl of Night
- _Has flung the stone that puts the stars to flight_.
- _An aged man is but a paltry thing,
- _A tattered coat upon a stick..."
- Thick, primal, blind fog descended before his eyes.
- The car screeched in hated anguish, its flesh laid bare in the raucous collision.
Compound metaphors are like a multiple punch, hitting the listener repeatedly with metaphoric elements. Where the complex metaphor uses stacked layers to enhance the metaphor, the compound metaphor uses sequential words. The compound metaphor is also known as a loose metaphor.
## Live and dead metaphors
A live metaphor is one which a reader notices. A dead metaphor is one no-one notices because it has become so common in the language.
### Examples
Two people walk off a tennis court. Someone asks the loser: "What happened?".
- _"He won"_. Literal truth.
- _"He beat me"_. Obviously a dead metaphor.
- _"He thrashed me"_. This one is slightly alive.
- _The river runs_. Dead, and many variations on this theme.
- _Electricity is a fluid_. Nearly dead.
- _All our efforts are running into the sand''. Live.
## Related pages
- Trope | high | false | false |
511 | Metabolism | **Metabolism** is the [chemical reaction](4891)s which keep us alive. It happens in the cells of living organisms.
The chemical reactions are [catalyzed](19865) by [enzyme](3922)s. Metabolism allows organisms to grow, reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments. The word ‘metabolism’ can also refer to [digestion](34892) and the transport of substances into and between different cells.
Metabolism is usually divided into two categories:
- [Catabolism](84797) breaks down [organic matter](73756) and harvests energy by way of [cellular respiration](14536).
- [Anabolism](140565) uses energy to build molecules such as [protein](636)s and [nucleic acid](40784)s.
The chemical reactions of metabolism are organized into metabolic pathways, or cycles, like the [Krebs cycle](183115). One chemical is transformed through a series of steps into another chemical by a series of enzymes.
The metabolic system of an organism decides which substances it finds [nutritious](107489) and which [poison](6087)ous. For example, some [prokaryote](54681)s use [hydrogen sulfide](52457) as a [nutrient](56759), yet this gas is poisonous to animals. The speed of metabolism, called the [metabolic rate](368779), influences how much food an organism will need, and how it is able to get that food.
A striking feature of metabolism is the similarity of the basic metabolic pathways and components between even vastly different species. For example, the set of [carboxylic acid](381526)s that are best known as the intermediates in the citric acid cycle are present in all known organisms, being found in species as diverse as the [unicellular](21992) bacterium _[Escherichia coli](48205)_ and huge [multicellular](21995) organisms like [elephant](3495)s. These striking similarities in metabolic pathways are likely due to their early appearance in the evolution of life, and kept because of their efficiency.
## Related pages
- [Catabolism](84797)
- [Anabolism](140565)
- [Metabolic rate](368779)
- [Metabolic syndrome](308333) | **Metabolism** is the chemical reactions which keep us alive. It happens in the cells of living organisms.
The chemical reactions are catalyzed by enzymes. Metabolism allows organisms to grow, reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments. The word ‘metabolism’ can also refer to digestion and the transport of substances into and between different cells.
Metabolism is usually divided into two categories:
- Catabolism breaks down organic matter and harvests energy by way of cellular respiration.
- Anabolism uses energy to build molecules such as proteins and nucleic acids.
The chemical reactions of metabolism are organized into metabolic pathways, or cycles, like the Krebs cycle. One chemical is transformed through a series of steps into another chemical by a series of enzymes.
The metabolic system of an organism decides which substances it finds nutritious and which poisonous. For example, some prokaryotes use hydrogen sulfide as a nutrient, yet this gas is poisonous to animals. The speed of metabolism, called the metabolic rate, influences how much food an organism will need, and how it is able to get that food.
A striking feature of metabolism is the similarity of the basic metabolic pathways and components between even vastly different species. For example, the set of carboxylic acids that are best known as the intermediates in the citric acid cycle are present in all known organisms, being found in species as diverse as the unicellular bacterium _Escherichia coli_ and huge multicellular organisms like elephants. These striking similarities in metabolic pathways are likely due to their early appearance in the evolution of life, and kept because of their efficiency.
## Related pages
- Catabolism
- Anabolism
- Metabolic rate
- Metabolic syndrome | high | false | false |
512 | Microscope | A **microscope** is a [scientific](700) [instrument](158772). It makes small objects look larger. This lets people see the small things. People who use microscopes frequently in their jobs include doctors and [scientist](748)s. [Student](7433)<nowiki/>s in science classes such as [biology](101) also use microscopes to study small things.
The earliest microscopes had only one [lens](391998) and are called _simple microscopes_. _Compound microscopes_ have at least two lenses. In a compound microscope, the lens closer to the eye is called the _eyepiece_. The lens at the other end is called the _objective_. The lenses multiply up, so a 10x eyepiece and a 40x objective together give 400x magnification.
Microscopes make things seem larger than they are, to about 1000 times larger. This is much stronger than a [magnifying glass](519) which works as a simple microscope.
## Types of microscopes
There are many types of microscopes. The most common kind of microscope is the compound [light microscope](21095). In a compound light microscope, the object is [illuminated](419513): light is thrown on it. The user looks at the image formed by the object. Light passes through two lenses and makes the image bigger.
The second most common kind are a few kinds of [electron microscope](19064)s. [Transmission electron microscopes](19064) (TEMs) fire [cathode ray](224919)<nowiki/>s into the object being looked at. This carries information about how the object looks into a magnetic "lens". The image is then magnified onto a television screen. [Scanning electron microscope](103355)s also fire electrons at the object, but in a single beam. These lose their power when they strike the object, and the loss of power results in something else being generated—usually an [X-ray](22434). This is sensed and magnified onto a screen. [Scanning tunneling microscope](111791)s were invented in 1984.
A [fluorescence microscope](668729) is a special kind of [light microscope](21095). In 2014, the [Nobel Prize in Chemistry](575567) was awarded to [Eric Betzig](794785), William Moerner, and [Stefan Hell](598362) for "the development of super-resolved fluorescence microscopy". The citation says it brings "[optical microscopy](21095) into the nanodimension".
## Other websites
- [Microscopy Information](http://www.microbehunter.com/) Information relating to optics, techniques and specimen preparation for teachers, students, amateur scientists.
- [Scanning electron microscope](http://www.mos.org/sln/SEM/index.html) | A **microscope** is a scientific instrument. It makes small objects look larger. This lets people see the small things. People who use microscopes frequently in their jobs include doctors and scientists. Student<nowiki/>s in science classes such as biology also use microscopes to study small things.
The earliest microscopes had only one lens and are called _simple microscopes_. _Compound microscopes_ have at least two lenses. In a compound microscope, the lens closer to the eye is called the _eyepiece_. The lens at the other end is called the _objective_. The lenses multiply up, so a 10x eyepiece and a 40x objective together give 400x magnification.
Microscopes make things seem larger than they are, to about 1000 times larger. This is much stronger than a magnifying glass which works as a simple microscope.
## Types of microscopes
There are many types of microscopes. The most common kind of microscope is the compound light microscope. In a compound light microscope, the object is illuminated: light is thrown on it. The user looks at the image formed by the object. Light passes through two lenses and makes the image bigger.
The second most common kind are a few kinds of electron microscopes. Transmission electron microscopes (TEMs) fire cathode ray<nowiki/>s into the object being looked at. This carries information about how the object looks into a magnetic "lens". The image is then magnified onto a television screen. Scanning electron microscopes also fire electrons at the object, but in a single beam. These lose their power when they strike the object, and the loss of power results in something else being generated—usually an X-ray. This is sensed and magnified onto a screen. Scanning tunneling microscopes were invented in 1984.
A fluorescence microscope is a special kind of light microscope. In 2014, the Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Eric Betzig, William Moerner, and Stefan Hell for "the development of super-resolved fluorescence microscopy". The citation says it brings "optical microscopy into the nanodimension".
## Other websites
- Microscopy Information Information relating to optics, techniques and specimen preparation for teachers, students, amateur scientists.
- Scanning electron microscope | medium | false | false |
513 | Mass | The **mass** of an object is a measure of how much of it there is. For example, A mountain has more mass than a rock. Mass is different from [weight](7956). Weight is the [product](14151) of mass times gravitational acceleration.
You can measure the mass of an object by using a [force](3220) on it. The more mass it has, the less it will change how fast it moves. This is called _inertial mass_ because it measures the [inertia](7337).
An object with a lot of mass, like a planet attracts objects with less mass and keeps them from floating away from the planet. This is called [gravity](2901). a When measuring the _force of gravity_ on an object, you can find the object’s _gravitational mass_. Tests of inertial and gravitational mass show that they are the same or almost the same.
## Units of mass
The unit of mass in the [International System of Units](3222) is the [kilogram](3264), which is represented by the symbol 'kg'. Fractions and multiples of this basic unit include the gram (one thousandth of a kg, symbol 'g') and the [ton](724663)ne (one thousand kg), amongst many others.
In some fields or applications, it is convenient to use different units to simplify the discussions or writings. For instance,
- Atomic [physicist](87508)s deal with the tiny masses of individual [atom](47)s and measure them in atomic mass units.
- Jewelers normally work with small [jewel](4316)s and precious stones where masses are traditionally measured in [carats](432082), which correspond to 200 mg or 0.2 g.
- The masses of stars are very large and are sometimes expressed in units of [solar mass](171926)es.
Traditional units are still in encountered in some countries: imperial units such as the [ounce](82740) or the [pound](72522) were in widespread use within the [British Empire](23677). Some of them are still popular in the United States, which also uses units like the short [ton](385362) (2,000 pounds, 907 kg) and the long ton (2,240 pounds, 1010 kg), not to be confused with the metric ton (1,000 kg).
## Conservation of mass and relativity
Mass is an intrinsic property of the object: it does not depend on its volume, or position in space, for instance. For a long time (at least since the works of [Antoine Lavoisier](215781) in the second half of the eighteen century), it has been known that the sum of the masses of objects that interact or of the [chemicals](17948) that react remain conserved throughout these processes. This remains an excellent approximation for everyday life and even most laboratory work.
However, Einstein has shown through his [special theory of relativity](9254) that the mass _m_ of an object moving at speed _v_ with respect to an observer must be higher than the mass of the same object observed at rest _m<sub>0</sub>_ with respect to the observer. The applicable formula is
where _c_ stands for the [speed of light](4322). This change in mass is only important when the speed of the object with respect to the observer becomes a large fraction of _c_.
## The Quantum Concept of Mass
_For further reference,see the Gluon field and :Higgs boson_
In [atomic nuclei](111794), example in [proton](9526)s and [neutron](16913)s,the residual mass comes from the binding kinetic and [potential energy](5814) of the quarks and gluon field. An analogy to go along with is to think of the 3 [quark](6828)s as balls with the gluons as a spring connecting the quarks. This mass accounts for 99% of the mass of these [baryon](274340)s with the remaining 1% coming from the individual quarks which comes from quantum interactions with the Higgs field.
## Related pages
- [Mass versus weight](235179)
- [Center of mass](271286)
- [Gravity](2901)
- [Density](21342)
- [Body mass index](71658)
- [Momentum](15743)
- Advanced topics:
- [Standard Model](28310)
- [Higgs field](269341). | The **mass** of an object is a measure of how much of it there is. For example, A mountain has more mass than a rock. Mass is different from weight. Weight is the product of mass times gravitational acceleration.
You can measure the mass of an object by using a force on it. The more mass it has, the less it will change how fast it moves. This is called _inertial mass_ because it measures the inertia.
An object with a lot of mass, like a planet attracts objects with less mass and keeps them from floating away from the planet. This is called gravity. a When measuring the _force of gravity_ on an object, you can find the object’s _gravitational mass_. Tests of inertial and gravitational mass show that they are the same or almost the same.
## Units of mass
The unit of mass in the International System of Units is the kilogram, which is represented by the symbol 'kg'. Fractions and multiples of this basic unit include the gram (one thousandth of a kg, symbol 'g') and the tonne (one thousand kg), amongst many others.
In some fields or applications, it is convenient to use different units to simplify the discussions or writings. For instance,
- Atomic physicists deal with the tiny masses of individual atoms and measure them in atomic mass units.
- Jewelers normally work with small jewels and precious stones where masses are traditionally measured in carats, which correspond to 200 mg or 0.2 g.
- The masses of stars are very large and are sometimes expressed in units of solar masses.
Traditional units are still in encountered in some countries: imperial units such as the ounce or the pound were in widespread use within the British Empire. Some of them are still popular in the United States, which also uses units like the short ton (2,000 pounds, 907 kg) and the long ton (2,240 pounds, 1010 kg), not to be confused with the metric ton (1,000 kg).
## Conservation of mass and relativity
Mass is an intrinsic property of the object: it does not depend on its volume, or position in space, for instance. For a long time (at least since the works of Antoine Lavoisier in the second half of the eighteen century), it has been known that the sum of the masses of objects that interact or of the chemicals that react remain conserved throughout these processes. This remains an excellent approximation for everyday life and even most laboratory work.
However, Einstein has shown through his special theory of relativity that the mass _m_ of an object moving at speed _v_ with respect to an observer must be higher than the mass of the same object observed at rest _m<sub>0</sub>_ with respect to the observer. The applicable formula is
where _c_ stands for the speed of light. This change in mass is only important when the speed of the object with respect to the observer becomes a large fraction of _c_.
## The Quantum Concept of Mass
_For further reference,see the Gluon field and :Higgs boson_
In atomic nuclei, example in protons and neutrons,the residual mass comes from the binding kinetic and potential energy of the quarks and gluon field. An analogy to go along with is to think of the 3 quarks as balls with the gluons as a spring connecting the quarks. This mass accounts for 99% of the mass of these baryons with the remaining 1% coming from the individual quarks which comes from quantum interactions with the Higgs field.
## Related pages
- Mass versus weight
- Center of mass
- Gravity
- Density
- Body mass index
- Momentum
- Advanced topics:
- Standard Model
- Higgs field. | high | false | false |
514 | Mercury (planet) | **Mercury** is the first [planet](639) from the Sun. It is the second hottest planet, and the smallest in the [Solar System](800). It is also the closest planet to the [Sun](44408). It makes one [trip](6251) around the Sun once every 87.969 days.
Mercury is bright when we can see it from [Earth](219). It has an apparent magnitude ranging from −2.0 to 5.5. It cannot be seen easily because it is usually too close to the Sun. Because of this, Mercury can only be seen in the morning or evening [twilight](22097) or when there is a [solar eclipse](27722).
Less is known about Mercury than about other planets of our Solar System. Even with [telescope](2911)s<nowiki/> only a small, bright crescent can be seen. It is also hard to put a [satellite](18867) in orbit around it. Two [spacecraft](21736) have visited Mercury. The first one was [Mariner 10](79988). It only made a map of about 45% of the Mercury's surface from 1974 to 1975. The second is the [MESSENGER](302917) spacecraft, which finished mapping Mercury in March 2013.
Mercury looks like Earth's [Moon](107799). It has many [crater](9850)s and smooth plains. It has no moons and little [atmosphere](350724) as we know it. However, Mercury does have an extremely thin atmosphere, known as an [exosphere](385474). Mercury has a large [iron](223080) [core](64168). Because of this Mercury has a [magnetic field](29209) about 1% as strong as that of the [Earth](219). It is a very dense planet because its core is large.
Because of it's thin atmosphere, temperature at the surface can be anywhere from about 90 to (−183 °C to 427 °C, −297 °F to 801 °F), with the [subsolar point](201177) being the hottest and the bottoms of craters near the [poles](192442) being the coldest.
Known sightings of Mercury date back to at least the first millennium BC. Before the 4th century BC, Greek astronomers thought that Mercury was two different objects: The one that they were only able to see at sunrise, they called [Apollo](26806); the other one that they were only able to see at sunset, they called [Hermes](25665). The English name for the planet is from the [Romans](24298), who named it after the Roman [god](26885) [Mercury](26857). The symbol for Mercury is based on Hermes' staff.
Even though Mercury is the closest planet to the Sun, it is not the hottest. This is because it has no [greenhouse effect](4746). The heat that the Sun gives it, quickly escapes into space. The hottest planet is [Venus](896).
## Inside Mercury
Mercury is one of four inner planets in the [Solar System](800). It is a [terrestrial planet](178746) like [Earth](219). It is the smallest planet in the Solar System, with a [radius](49272) of . Mercury is even smaller than some of the largest moons in the solar system, such as [Ganymede](81581), the largest moon of Jupiter and [Titan](24265), the largest moon of Saturn. However, it has in 2.2 times greater mass than Ganymede and around 2 times heavier than Titan. Mercury is made of about 70% [metal](3332)lic and 30% [silicate](49515) material. Mercury has the second highest [density](21342) in the Solar System at 5.427 g/cm³, only slightly less than Earth’s.
## Surface of Mercury
Mercury's [surface](20962) resembles the surface of the Moon. It has [plain](48527)s that look like [mares](536159) and has lots of [crater](9850)s. Mercury was hit by a multitude of [comet](168)s and [asteroid](51)s 4.6 billion years ago. Mercury was also hit during a period called the [Late Heavy Bombardment](242278). Mercury has many craters because its [atmosphere](350724) is too faint to slow foreign objects down. Images from _MESSENGER_ have shown that Mercury may have [shield volcano](61899)es.
The surface temperature of Mercury ranges from 100 to 700 K (−173 to 427 °C; −280 to 800 °F) at the most extreme places. Even though the [temperature](6329) at the surface of Mercury in the [day](3539) is very high, [observation](1232320)s suggest that there is frozen water on Mercury.
Mercury is too small and hot for its [gravity](2901) to keep any thick atmosphere for a long time. It does have a thin [exosphere](385474) that is made up of [hydrogen](355), [helium](357), [oxygen](2949), [sodium](5392), [calcium](13527), [potassium](14051). This exosphere is blown away and replenished from lots of sources. Hydrogen and helium may come from the [solar wind](126603). [Radioactive decay](28153) of [elements](247) inside the crust of Mercury provide another source of helium, as well as sodium and potassium.
## Orbit and rotation
Mercury has the most [eccentric orbit](76456) of all the [planet](639)s in the Solar System. It has an eccentricity of 0.21. It ranges from 46,000,000 to 70,000,000 km (29,000,000 to 43,000,000 mi) away from the Sun. Mercury takes 87.969 Earth days to go around the [Sun](44408). Mercury's [axial tilt](75950) is 0.027 degrees. While most of Mercury's [precession](169573) is caused by the pull of other planets, the second-largest cause is the warping of [space-time](38700) around the [Sun](44408).
In the future, because Mercury's orbit's is very eccentric and [Jupiter's](408) huge gravity, its orbit may become unstable and the following things may happen:
- It crashes into the [Sun](44408)
- It enters the Sun's [Roche limit](80936) slowly and is torn apart
- It crashes into [Venus](896)
- It crashes into [Earth](219)
- It is flung out of the [Solar System](800) and becomes a [rogue planet](954873)
## List of satellites sent to Mercury
Few [man-made satellites](18867) have been sent to Mercury to study it. They are:
### _Mariner 10_
The first [spacecraft](21736) to visit Mercury was NASA's Mariner 10. It stayed in Mercury's orbit from 1974 to 1975. Mariner 10 took the first close-up [picture](6079)s of Mercury's surface. It showed many features, such as the [crater](9850)s. Unfortunately, the same side of Mercury was day each time Mariner 10 flew close to Mercury. This made observing of both sides of Mercury impossible. In the end, less than 45% of the Mercury's surface was mapped.
Mariner 10 came close to Mercury three times. At the first time, it found a [magnetic field](29209), which surprised [planetary geologists](517542) because Mercury's rotation was too slow to create a magnetic field. The second time was mainly used to take pictures of Mercury's surface. At the third time, it got more information about the magnetic field. It showed that the Mercury's magnetic field is like the Earth's magnetic field.
On March 24, 1975, eight days after its last close fly by, Mariner 10 ran out of [fuel](4077). Because its orbit could no longer be controlled, mission controllers shut down the probe . Mariner 10 is thought to still be orbiting the Sun.
### _MESSENGER_
The second satellite to visit Mercury is NASA's MESSENGER. It stands for MErcury Surface, Space ENvironment, GEochemistry, and Ranging. It was launched on August 3, 2004. It made a fly-by of [Earth](219) in August 2005. It made another fly-by of [Venus](896) in October 2006. It made its first fly-by of Mercury happened on January 14, 2008, a second on October 6, 2008, and a third on September 29, 2009. It made a map of most of Mercury that _Mariner 10_ didn't map. The first image of Mercury orbiting the Sun was gotten on March 29, 2011.
MESSENGER was made to study Mercury's high [density](21342), the history of Mercury's [geology](19223), its magnetic field, the [structure](21702) of its core, if it has ice at its poles, and where its thin atmosphere comes from. _MESSENGER_ crashed into Mercury's surface on April 30, 2015.
### _Bepicolombo_
The [European Space Agency](87703) and the Japanese Space Agency made and launched a spacecraft called _BepiColombo._ It will [orbit](6251) Mercury with two probes: one to map the planet and the other to study its [magnetosphere](67667). It was launched on October 20, 2018. _BepiColombo_ is expected to reach Mercury in 2025. It will release the probe that will study the magnetosphere into an [elliptical orbit](748553). It will then release the probe the will make a map of Mercury into a [circular orbit](748552).
## Related pages
- [List of planets](4413)
## Other websites
- [SolarViews.Com](http://www.solarviews.com/eng/mercury.htm)
- [www.planetfacts.net](http://www.planetfacts.net/Mercury-Facts.html)
## Infobox (planet)
- **bgcolour**: #D8BBA6
- **name**: Mercury
- **symbol**:
- **image**: Mercury in color - Prockter07 centered.jpg
- **caption**: Mercury photographed by MESSENGER (spacecraft), MESSENGER spacecraft in 2008
- **epoch**: J2000
- **aphelion**: 69,816,900 km
0.466 697 Astronomical unit, AU
- **perihelion**: 46,001,200 km
0.307 499 AU
- **semimajor**: 57,909,100 km
0.387 098 AU
- **eccentricity**: 0.205 630
- **period**: 87.969 1 day, d
(0.240 846 julian year (astronomy), a)
- **synodic period**: 115.88 d
- **avg speed**: 47.87 km/s
- **inclination**: 7.005° to Ecliptic
3.38° to Ecliptic#Ecliptic and planets, Sun’s equator
6.34° to Invariable plane
- **asc node**: 48.331°
- **arg peri**: 29.124°
- **mean anomaly**: 174.796°
- **satellites**: None
diameter = 4,880 km
- **mean radius**: 2,439.7 ± 1.0 km
0.3829 Earths
- **flattening**: < 0.0006
- **surface area**: 7.48 km²
0.147 Earths
- **volume**: 6.083 km³
0.054 Earths
- **mass**: 3.3022 kg
0.055 Earths
- **density**: 5.427 g/cm³
- **surface grav**: 3.7 Acceleration, m/s²
0.38 g-force, g
- **escape velocity**: 4.25 km/s
- **sidereal day**: 58.646 day
1407.5 hour, h
- **axial tilt**: 2.11′ ± 0.1′
- **right asc north pole**: 18 h 44 min 2 s
281.01°
- **declination**: 61.45°
- **albedo**: 0.119 (Bond albedo, bond)
0.106 (Geometric albedo, geom.)
- **magnitude**: up to −1.9
- **angular size**: 4.5" – 13"
- **temp name1**: 0°N, 0°W
- **min temp 1**: 100 K
- **mean temp 1**: 340 K
- **max temp 1**: 700 K
- **temp name2**: 85°N, 0°W
- **min temp 2**: 80 K
- **mean temp 2**: 200 K
- **max temp 2**: 380 K
- **adjectives**: Mercurian,
- **atmosphere composition**: 42% Molecular oxygen
29.0% sodium
22.0% hydrogen
6.0% helium
0.5% potassium
Trace amounts of argon, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, Water, water vapor, xenon, krypton, & neon | **Mercury** is the first planet from the Sun. It is the second hottest planet, and the smallest in the Solar System. It is also the closest planet to the Sun. It makes one trip around the Sun once every 87.969 days.
Mercury is bright when we can see it from Earth. It has an apparent magnitude ranging from −2.0 to 5.5. It cannot be seen easily because it is usually too close to the Sun. Because of this, Mercury can only be seen in the morning or evening twilight or when there is a solar eclipse.
Less is known about Mercury than about other planets of our Solar System. Even with telescopes<nowiki/> only a small, bright crescent can be seen. It is also hard to put a satellite in orbit around it. Two spacecraft have visited Mercury. The first one was Mariner 10. It only made a map of about 45% of the Mercury's surface from 1974 to 1975. The second is the MESSENGER spacecraft, which finished mapping Mercury in March 2013.
Mercury looks like Earth's Moon. It has many craters and smooth plains. It has no moons and little atmosphere as we know it. However, Mercury does have an extremely thin atmosphere, known as an exosphere. Mercury has a large iron core. Because of this Mercury has a magnetic field about 1% as strong as that of the Earth. It is a very dense planet because its core is large.
Because of it's thin atmosphere, temperature at the surface can be anywhere from about 90 to (−183 °C to 427 °C, −297 °F to 801 °F), with the subsolar point being the hottest and the bottoms of craters near the poles being the coldest.
Known sightings of Mercury date back to at least the first millennium BC. Before the 4th century BC, Greek astronomers thought that Mercury was two different objects: The one that they were only able to see at sunrise, they called Apollo; the other one that they were only able to see at sunset, they called Hermes. The English name for the planet is from the Romans, who named it after the Roman god Mercury. The symbol for Mercury is based on Hermes' staff.
Even though Mercury is the closest planet to the Sun, it is not the hottest. This is because it has no greenhouse effect. The heat that the Sun gives it, quickly escapes into space. The hottest planet is Venus.
## Inside Mercury
Mercury is one of four inner planets in the Solar System. It is a terrestrial planet like Earth. It is the smallest planet in the Solar System, with a radius of . Mercury is even smaller than some of the largest moons in the solar system, such as Ganymede, the largest moon of Jupiter and Titan, the largest moon of Saturn. However, it has in 2.2 times greater mass than Ganymede and around 2 times heavier than Titan. Mercury is made of about 70% metallic and 30% silicate material. Mercury has the second highest density in the Solar System at 5.427 g/cm³, only slightly less than Earth’s.
## Surface of Mercury
Mercury's surface resembles the surface of the Moon. It has plains that look like mares and has lots of craters. Mercury was hit by a multitude of comets and asteroids 4.6 billion years ago. Mercury was also hit during a period called the Late Heavy Bombardment. Mercury has many craters because its atmosphere is too faint to slow foreign objects down. Images from _MESSENGER_ have shown that Mercury may have shield volcanoes.
The surface temperature of Mercury ranges from 100 to 700 K (−173 to 427 °C; −280 to 800 °F) at the most extreme places. Even though the temperature at the surface of Mercury in the day is very high, observations suggest that there is frozen water on Mercury.
Mercury is too small and hot for its gravity to keep any thick atmosphere for a long time. It does have a thin exosphere that is made up of hydrogen, helium, oxygen, sodium, calcium, potassium. This exosphere is blown away and replenished from lots of sources. Hydrogen and helium may come from the solar wind. Radioactive decay of elements inside the crust of Mercury provide another source of helium, as well as sodium and potassium.
## Orbit and rotation
Mercury has the most eccentric orbit of all the planets in the Solar System. It has an eccentricity of 0.21. It ranges from 46,000,000 to 70,000,000 km (29,000,000 to 43,000,000 mi) away from the Sun. Mercury takes 87.969 Earth days to go around the Sun. Mercury's axial tilt is 0.027 degrees. While most of Mercury's precession is caused by the pull of other planets, the second-largest cause is the warping of space-time around the Sun.
In the future, because Mercury's orbit's is very eccentric and Jupiter's huge gravity, its orbit may become unstable and the following things may happen:
- It crashes into the Sun
- It enters the Sun's Roche limit slowly and is torn apart
- It crashes into Venus
- It crashes into Earth
- It is flung out of the Solar System and becomes a rogue planet
## List of satellites sent to Mercury
Few man-made satellites have been sent to Mercury to study it. They are:
### _Mariner 10_
The first spacecraft to visit Mercury was NASA's Mariner 10. It stayed in Mercury's orbit from 1974 to 1975. Mariner 10 took the first close-up pictures of Mercury's surface. It showed many features, such as the craters. Unfortunately, the same side of Mercury was day each time Mariner 10 flew close to Mercury. This made observing of both sides of Mercury impossible. In the end, less than 45% of the Mercury's surface was mapped.
Mariner 10 came close to Mercury three times. At the first time, it found a magnetic field, which surprised planetary geologists because Mercury's rotation was too slow to create a magnetic field. The second time was mainly used to take pictures of Mercury's surface. At the third time, it got more information about the magnetic field. It showed that the Mercury's magnetic field is like the Earth's magnetic field.
On March 24, 1975, eight days after its last close fly by, Mariner 10 ran out of fuel. Because its orbit could no longer be controlled, mission controllers shut down the probe . Mariner 10 is thought to still be orbiting the Sun.
### _MESSENGER_
The second satellite to visit Mercury is NASA's MESSENGER. It stands for MErcury Surface, Space ENvironment, GEochemistry, and Ranging. It was launched on August 3, 2004. It made a fly-by of Earth in August 2005. It made another fly-by of Venus in October 2006. It made its first fly-by of Mercury happened on January 14, 2008, a second on October 6, 2008, and a third on September 29, 2009. It made a map of most of Mercury that _Mariner 10_ didn't map. The first image of Mercury orbiting the Sun was gotten on March 29, 2011.
MESSENGER was made to study Mercury's high density, the history of Mercury's geology, its magnetic field, the structure of its core, if it has ice at its poles, and where its thin atmosphere comes from. _MESSENGER_ crashed into Mercury's surface on April 30, 2015.
### _Bepicolombo_
The European Space Agency and the Japanese Space Agency made and launched a spacecraft called _BepiColombo._ It will orbit Mercury with two probes: one to map the planet and the other to study its magnetosphere. It was launched on October 20, 2018. _BepiColombo_ is expected to reach Mercury in 2025. It will release the probe that will study the magnetosphere into an elliptical orbit. It will then release the probe the will make a map of Mercury into a circular orbit.
## Related pages
- List of planets
## Other websites
- SolarViews.Com
- www.planetfacts.net
## Infobox (planet)
- **bgcolour**: #D8BBA6
- **name**: Mercury
- **symbol**:
- **image**: Mercury in color - Prockter07 centered.jpg
- **caption**: Mercury photographed by MESSENGER (spacecraft), MESSENGER spacecraft in 2008
- **epoch**: J2000
- **aphelion**: 69,816,900 km
0.466 697 Astronomical unit, AU
- **perihelion**: 46,001,200 km
0.307 499 AU
- **semimajor**: 57,909,100 km
0.387 098 AU
- **eccentricity**: 0.205 630
- **period**: 87.969 1 day, d
(0.240 846 julian year (astronomy), a)
- **synodic period**: 115.88 d
- **avg speed**: 47.87 km/s
- **inclination**: 7.005° to Ecliptic
3.38° to Ecliptic#Ecliptic and planets, Sun’s equator
6.34° to Invariable plane
- **asc node**: 48.331°
- **arg peri**: 29.124°
- **mean anomaly**: 174.796°
- **satellites**: None
diameter = 4,880 km
- **mean radius**: 2,439.7 ± 1.0 km
0.3829 Earths
- **flattening**: < 0.0006
- **surface area**: 7.48 km²
0.147 Earths
- **volume**: 6.083 km³
0.054 Earths
- **mass**: 3.3022 kg
0.055 Earths
- **density**: 5.427 g/cm³
- **surface grav**: 3.7 Acceleration, m/s²
0.38 g-force, g
- **escape velocity**: 4.25 km/s
- **sidereal day**: 58.646 day
1407.5 hour, h
- **axial tilt**: 2.11′ ± 0.1′
- **right asc north pole**: 18 h 44 min 2 s
281.01°
- **declination**: 61.45°
- **albedo**: 0.119 (Bond albedo, bond)
0.106 (Geometric albedo, geom.)
- **magnitude**: up to −1.9
- **angular size**: 4.5" – 13"
- **temp name1**: 0°N, 0°W
- **min temp 1**: 100 K
- **mean temp 1**: 340 K
- **max temp 1**: 700 K
- **temp name2**: 85°N, 0°W
- **min temp 2**: 80 K
- **mean temp 2**: 200 K
- **max temp 2**: 380 K
- **adjectives**: Mercurian,
- **atmosphere composition**: 42% Molecular oxygen
29.0% sodium
22.0% hydrogen
6.0% helium
0.5% potassium
Trace amounts of argon, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, Water, water vapor, xenon, krypton, & neon | high | false | false |
515 | Mars | **Mars** is the fourth [planet](639) from the [Sun](44408) and the second-smallest planet in the [Solar System](800), nicknamed ** The Red Planet**.
Mars is a [terrestrial planet](178746) with [caps](305855) of [water](939) and [carbon dioxide](11599). It has the largest [volcano](4483) in the Solar System, and some very large impact craters.
## Infobox (planet)
- **name**: Mars
- **image**: OSIRIS Mars true color.jpg
- **image alt**: Mars appears as a red-orange globe with darker blotches and white icecaps visible on both of its poles. If you’re using wiki for school, stop it, -your teacher.
- **caption**: Pictured in natural color in 2007
- **background**: #f8f9fa
- **symbol**:
- **adjectives**: Martian
- **epoch**: J2000
- **satellites**: Moons of Mars, 2
- **allsatellites**: yes
- **volume**:
<small>(0.151 Earths)</small>
- **mass**:
<small>(0.107 Earths)</small>
- **sidereal day**:
- **axial tilt**: to its orbital plane
- **right asc north pole**:
- **temp name1**: Kelvin
- **min temp 1**: 130 K
- **mean temp 1**: 210 K
- **max temp 1**: 308 K
- **temp name2**: Celsius
- **min temp 2**: −143 °C
- **mean temp 2**: −63 °C
- **max temp 2**: 35 °C
- **temp name3**: Fahrenheit
- **min temp 3**: −226 °F
- **mean temp 3**: −82 °F
- **max temp 3**: 95 °F
- **magnitude**: −2.94 to +1.86
- **angular size**: 3.5–25.1″
- **surface pressure**: 0.636 (0.4–0.87) pascal (unit), kPa | **Mars** is the fourth planet from the Sun and the second-smallest planet in the Solar System, nicknamed ** The Red Planet**.
Mars is a terrestrial planet with caps of water and carbon dioxide. It has the largest volcano in the Solar System, and some very large impact craters.
## Infobox (planet)
- **name**: Mars
- **image**: OSIRIS Mars true color.jpg
- **image alt**: Mars appears as a red-orange globe with darker blotches and white icecaps visible on both of its poles. If you’re using wiki for school, stop it, -your teacher.
- **caption**: Pictured in natural color in 2007
- **background**: #f8f9fa
- **symbol**:
- **adjectives**: Martian
- **epoch**: J2000
- **satellites**: Moons of Mars, 2
- **allsatellites**: yes
- **volume**:
<small>(0.151 Earths)</small>
- **mass**:
<small>(0.107 Earths)</small>
- **sidereal day**:
- **axial tilt**: to its orbital plane
- **right asc north pole**:
- **temp name1**: Kelvin
- **min temp 1**: 130 K
- **mean temp 1**: 210 K
- **max temp 1**: 308 K
- **temp name2**: Celsius
- **min temp 2**: −143 °C
- **mean temp 2**: −63 °C
- **max temp 2**: 35 °C
- **temp name3**: Fahrenheit
- **min temp 3**: −226 °F
- **mean temp 3**: −82 °F
- **max temp 3**: 95 °F
- **magnitude**: −2.94 to +1.86
- **angular size**: 3.5–25.1″
- **surface pressure**: 0.636 (0.4–0.87) pascal (unit), kPa | high | true | false |
516 | Classic Mac OS | **Mac OS** is an [operating system](587) for [Macintosh](517) [computers](112). Mac OS was first made by Apple Inc. in 1984. In those days Mac OS was called **Macintosh System Software** – which was shortened to **System** or **SSW** (**S**ystem **S**oft**w**are). The term "Mac OS" first appeared in the splash screen for System 7.5.1, but was not adopted as the new name until the release of Mac OS 7.6.
## Related pages
- [Apple Macintosh](517) | **Mac OS** is an operating system for Macintosh computers. Mac OS was first made by Apple Inc. in 1984. In those days Mac OS was called **Macintosh System Software** – which was shortened to **System** or **SSW** (**S**ystem **S**oft**w**are). The term "Mac OS" first appeared in the splash screen for System 7.5.1, but was not adopted as the new name until the release of Mac OS 7.6.
## Related pages
- Apple Macintosh | medium | false | false |
517 | Apple Macintosh | The **Apple Macintosh** or just **Mac** is a line of [personal computer](16971)s made by the American company [Apple Inc](7111). The Macintosh was one of the first computers in which the people could use a mouse for pointing on a screen which had icons. This new way of working with a computer ([interface](456543)) was known as [graphical user interface](36726). It was this feature of the Macintosh that made it so popular.
### Processor history
The **Apple–Intel transition** was when Apple changed the CPU of Macintosh computers from PowerPC processors to Intel [x86](233576) processors. It was announced at the 2005 World Wide Developers Conference. [Steve Jobs](50777) announced it.
Macintoshes were different than other personal computers for many years based on their [central processing unit](17376) (CPU). At the start, Macs used [Motorola 68000](796537) chips instead of [Intel](23895) chips. Later, Macs used PowerPC chips. In 2006, Macs started to use Intel chips. In 2020, Macs started to use Apple Silicon chips. Today, Macs are sold with [Apple M1](832166) chips.
## Macintoshes
||**Compact** (portable)|**Consumer** (end user)|**Professional**|
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|**Desktop**|[Mac Mini](232889)|iMac|[Mac Pro](232888); [Mac Studio](912568)|
|**Portable** ([MacBook](137747))|[MacBook](137747)|[MacBook Air](212932)|[MacBook Pro](186912)|
|**Server**|[Mac Mini](232889) (server)|[Mac Mini](232889) (server)|[Mac Pro](232888) (server)|
### Software
The Mac does not have the [Windows](927) operating system installed on it. It has its own range of operating systems, known as macOS. The newest operating system is known as “Sonoma". Macs can run both Windows and macOS at the same time with help of a program called “Boot Camp”, which comes on every Intel-based Mac.
In general, Macintosh computers cost more than other computers of the same speed.
## Related pages
- iMac
- [MacBook](137747)
- [MacBook Air](212932)
- [MacBook Pro](186912)
- [Macintosh 128K](424476)
- [Macintosh Classic](264635)
- Other popular products of Apple include iPod, iPhone and iPad. | The **Apple Macintosh** or just **Mac** is a line of personal computers made by the American company Apple Inc. The Macintosh was one of the first computers in which the people could use a mouse for pointing on a screen which had icons. This new way of working with a computer (interface) was known as graphical user interface. It was this feature of the Macintosh that made it so popular.
### Processor history
The **Apple–Intel transition** was when Apple changed the CPU of Macintosh computers from PowerPC processors to Intel x86 processors. It was announced at the 2005 World Wide Developers Conference. Steve Jobs announced it.
Macintoshes were different than other personal computers for many years based on their central processing unit (CPU). At the start, Macs used Motorola 68000 chips instead of Intel chips. Later, Macs used PowerPC chips. In 2006, Macs started to use Intel chips. In 2020, Macs started to use Apple Silicon chips. Today, Macs are sold with Apple M1 chips.
## Macintoshes
||**Compact** (portable)|**Consumer** (end user)|**Professional**|
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|**Desktop**|Mac Mini|iMac|Mac Pro; Mac Studio|
|**Portable** (MacBook)|MacBook|MacBook Air|MacBook Pro|
|**Server**|Mac Mini (server)|Mac Mini (server)|Mac Pro (server)|
### Software
The Mac does not have the Windows operating system installed on it. It has its own range of operating systems, known as macOS. The newest operating system is known as “Sonoma". Macs can run both Windows and macOS at the same time with help of a program called “Boot Camp”, which comes on every Intel-based Mac.
In general, Macintosh computers cost more than other computers of the same speed.
## Related pages
- iMac
- MacBook
- MacBook Air
- MacBook Pro
- Macintosh 128K
- Macintosh Classic
- Other popular products of Apple include iPod, iPhone and iPad. | medium | false | false |
518 | Metre | The **metre** (British spelling) or **meter** (American spelling) (symbol: **m**) is the basic unit of [length](7954) in the SI measurement system. The [symbol](683) for the metre is **m**. The first meaning (in the [French Revolution](21250)) was one ten-millionth of the [distance](203) between the [Earth](219)'s [equator](6792) and the [North Pole](2028) along the [Paris](4467) [meridian](21235). The metre is now defined as the [distance](203) [light](3987) travels in a [vacuum](11026) in 1/299,792,458 of a [second](3266).
In the imperial system of measurement, one yard is 0.9144 metres (after international agreement in 1959), so a metre is very near to 39.37 [inch](381)es: about 3.281 feet, or 1.0936 yards.
## Units multiples
- 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 001 Qm (quettametre) = 1 m
- 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 001 Rm (ronnametre) = 1 m
- 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 001 Ym (yotametre) = 1 m
- 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 001 Zm (zetametre) = 1 m
- 0.000 000 000 000 000 001 Em (exametre) = 1 m
- 0.000 000 000 000 001 Pm (petametre) = 1 m
- 0.000 000 000 001 Tm (terametre) = 1 m
- 0.000 000 001 Gm (gigametre) = 1 m
- 0.000 001 Mm (megametre) = 1 m
- 0.001 km ([kilometre](417)) = 1 m
- 0.01 hm (hectometre) = 1 m
- 0.1 dam(decametre) = 1 m
- 1 m (metre)
- 10 dm (decimetres) = 1 m
- 100 cm ([centimetres](9092)) = 1 m
- 1000 mm ([millimetres](12421)) = 1 m
- 1 000 000 μm ([micrometres](89515)) = 1 m
- 1 000 000 000 nm ([nanometres](34224)) = 1 m
- 1 000 000 000 000 pm (picometres) = 1 m
- 1 000 000 000 000 000 fm (fermi or femtometres) = 1 m
- 1 000 000 000 000 000 000 am (attometres) = 1 m
- 1 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 zm (zeptometres) = 1 m
- 1 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 ym (yoctometres) = 1 m
- 10^27 rm (rontometre)
- 10^30 qm (quettametre)
## Related pages
- [Metre Convention](437217) | The **metre** (British spelling) or **meter** (American spelling) (symbol: **m**) is the basic unit of length in the SI measurement system. The symbol for the metre is **m**. The first meaning (in the French Revolution) was one ten-millionth of the distance between the Earth's equator and the North Pole along the Paris meridian. The metre is now defined as the distance light travels in a vacuum in 1/299,792,458 of a second.
In the imperial system of measurement, one yard is 0.9144 metres (after international agreement in 1959), so a metre is very near to 39.37 inches: about 3.281 feet, or 1.0936 yards.
## Units multiples
- 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 001 Qm (quettametre) = 1 m
- 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 001 Rm (ronnametre) = 1 m
- 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 001 Ym (yotametre) = 1 m
- 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 001 Zm (zetametre) = 1 m
- 0.000 000 000 000 000 001 Em (exametre) = 1 m
- 0.000 000 000 000 001 Pm (petametre) = 1 m
- 0.000 000 000 001 Tm (terametre) = 1 m
- 0.000 000 001 Gm (gigametre) = 1 m
- 0.000 001 Mm (megametre) = 1 m
- 0.001 km (kilometre) = 1 m
- 0.01 hm (hectometre) = 1 m
- 0.1 dam(decametre) = 1 m
- 1 m (metre)
- 10 dm (decimetres) = 1 m
- 100 cm (centimetres) = 1 m
- 1000 mm (millimetres) = 1 m
- 1 000 000 μm (micrometres) = 1 m
- 1 000 000 000 nm (nanometres) = 1 m
- 1 000 000 000 000 pm (picometres) = 1 m
- 1 000 000 000 000 000 fm (fermi or femtometres) = 1 m
- 1 000 000 000 000 000 000 am (attometres) = 1 m
- 1 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 zm (zeptometres) = 1 m
- 1 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 ym (yoctometres) = 1 m
- 10^27 rm (rontometre)
- 10^30 qm (quettametre)
## Related pages
- Metre Convention | high | false | false |
519 | Magnifying glass | A **magnifying glass** is a [lens](391998) through which can be used to make things appear bigger, so you can see them better. It is used in many applications and manual operations, e.g., for examining postage stamps in [philately](96025).
The magnifying glass consists of a piece of convex-shaped glass or plastic. It has to be held at the right distance between the eye and the object for the object to be in [focus](86784). The magnifying glass usually comes with a handle. A [telescope](2911) is a more advanced kind of magnifying glass and consists of at least two glass lenses.
A pair of [binoculars](26496) is like a telescope for each eye. _Spectacles_ or [eyeglasses](9675) also use lenses to correct a person's vision.
## Related pages
- [Binoculars](26496)
- [Stamp album](85196)
- [Telescope](2911) | A **magnifying glass** is a lens through which can be used to make things appear bigger, so you can see them better. It is used in many applications and manual operations, e.g., for examining postage stamps in philately.
The magnifying glass consists of a piece of convex-shaped glass or plastic. It has to be held at the right distance between the eye and the object for the object to be in focus. The magnifying glass usually comes with a handle. A telescope is a more advanced kind of magnifying glass and consists of at least two glass lenses.
A pair of binoculars is like a telescope for each eye. _Spectacles_ or eyeglasses also use lenses to correct a person's vision.
## Related pages
- Binoculars
- Stamp album
- Telescope | medium | false | false |
520 | Molecule | A **molecule** is the smallest amount of a [chemical substance](17948) that can exist. If a molecule were split into smaller pieces, it would be a different [substance](682).
Molecules are made up of [atom](47)s that are stuck together in a particular shape or [form](63408). Not all combinations of atoms are equally possible; atoms make certain shapes in preference to others. Also, they have different [valency](52252). For example, [oxygen](2949) atoms always have two bonds with other atoms, [carbon](4887) atoms always have four bonds with other atoms, and [nitrogen](2061) atoms always have three bonds with other atoms.
In the kinetic theory of gases, the term _molecule_ is often used for any gaseous [particle](13990) regardless of its composition. According to this definition, [noble gas](19788) atoms are considered molecules as they are in fact monoatomic molecules.
In [gas](3283)es like [air](9), the molecules are just flying around. In [liquid](7870)s like [water](939), the molecules are stuck together but they can still move. In [solid](4058)s like [sugar](9642), the molecules can only vibrate. In the fourth state of matter known as [plasma](6732), the atoms are [ionized](171912) and cannot form molecules.
With a molecular formula, you can write down the numbers of all atoms in a molecule. For example, the molecular formula of [glucose](19831) is C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>6</sub>. That means that one molecule of glucose is made up of six carbon atoms, twelve hydrogen atoms and six oxygen atoms.
## Bonding
For a molecule to exist, atoms have to stick together. This happens when two atoms share [electron](4006)s. Instead of circling just one atom, the electron now circles around two. This is called a [covalent bond](38073). Sometimes, more than one electron is shared. The more [electron](4006)<nowiki/>s are shared, the stronger the bond gets and the stronger the atoms stick together.
Bonds can also be broken apart. Since most bonds require energy to form, they also give off [energy](4115) when they are broken. But before most bonds break, the molecule has to be heated. Then the atoms start to move, and when they move too much, the bond breaks. Molecules that require less energy to break than they give off when broken are called [fuels](4077). For example, a candle will just sit there and nothing happens. But when you use a match to light it, it will burn for a long time. The match brings the energy to break the first bonds, which release enough energy to break the bonds below them, until the candle has burned down. There are also [ionic bond](38077)s.
## Related pages
- [Intermolecular force](73074)
- [Stereochemistry](302535)
## Other websites
- [Molecule of the Month](http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/motm/motm.htm) - School of Chemistry, University of Bristol
- [Antibody Molecule](http://www.accessexcellence.org/RC/VL/GG/antiBD_mol.html) - The National Health Museum
- [Data Book of Molecules](http://www.ecosci.jp/ec.html) - Home Page for Learning Environmental Chemistry | A **molecule** is the smallest amount of a chemical substance that can exist. If a molecule were split into smaller pieces, it would be a different substance.
Molecules are made up of atoms that are stuck together in a particular shape or form. Not all combinations of atoms are equally possible; atoms make certain shapes in preference to others. Also, they have different valency. For example, oxygen atoms always have two bonds with other atoms, carbon atoms always have four bonds with other atoms, and nitrogen atoms always have three bonds with other atoms.
In the kinetic theory of gases, the term _molecule_ is often used for any gaseous particle regardless of its composition. According to this definition, noble gas atoms are considered molecules as they are in fact monoatomic molecules.
In gases like air, the molecules are just flying around. In liquids like water, the molecules are stuck together but they can still move. In solids like sugar, the molecules can only vibrate. In the fourth state of matter known as plasma, the atoms are ionized and cannot form molecules.
With a molecular formula, you can write down the numbers of all atoms in a molecule. For example, the molecular formula of glucose is C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>6</sub>. That means that one molecule of glucose is made up of six carbon atoms, twelve hydrogen atoms and six oxygen atoms.
## Bonding
For a molecule to exist, atoms have to stick together. This happens when two atoms share electrons. Instead of circling just one atom, the electron now circles around two. This is called a covalent bond. Sometimes, more than one electron is shared. The more electron<nowiki/>s are shared, the stronger the bond gets and the stronger the atoms stick together.
Bonds can also be broken apart. Since most bonds require energy to form, they also give off energy when they are broken. But before most bonds break, the molecule has to be heated. Then the atoms start to move, and when they move too much, the bond breaks. Molecules that require less energy to break than they give off when broken are called fuels. For example, a candle will just sit there and nothing happens. But when you use a match to light it, it will burn for a long time. The match brings the energy to break the first bonds, which release enough energy to break the bonds below them, until the candle has burned down. There are also ionic bonds.
## Related pages
- Intermolecular force
- Stereochemistry
## Other websites
- Molecule of the Month - School of Chemistry, University of Bristol
- Antibody Molecule - The National Health Museum
- Data Book of Molecules - Home Page for Learning Environmental Chemistry | high | false | false |
522 | Moral reasoning | **Moral reasoning** is a topic [studied](2113) in [psychology](6204) and in moral [philosophy](590). It studies how people think about moral issues, problems, and questions. [Psychologist](125602)s who have studied it include [Lawrence Kohlberg](422014) and Elliot Turiel. Kohlberg said that moral understanding develops in three main stages as a person gets older, but Turiel said that there are three domains of moral understanding that develop at the same time as a person gets older.
Moral philosophy, or [ethics](226), is a major branch of [philosophy](590). It is the study of value or quality. It covers the analysis and use of [concept](42967)s such as right, wrong, good, [evil](7733), and responsibility. | **Moral reasoning** is a topic studied in psychology and in moral philosophy. It studies how people think about moral issues, problems, and questions. Psychologists who have studied it include Lawrence Kohlberg and Elliot Turiel. Kohlberg said that moral understanding develops in three main stages as a person gets older, but Turiel said that there are three domains of moral understanding that develop at the same time as a person gets older.
Moral philosophy, or ethics, is a major branch of philosophy. It is the study of value or quality. It covers the analysis and use of concepts such as right, wrong, good, evil, and responsibility. | medium | false | false |
524 | Mosque | A **mosque** is a place where Muslims [worship](51910). The word _mosque_ comes from the [Arabic](8522) word _masjid_. A larger, 'collective', mosque is called a _masjid jāmi_. Larger mosques offer more [service](46638)s to their [community](17207).
For many Muslim people, a mosque is more than a place of worship. Muslims worship, study and discuss [Islam](219592), and do many other things in a mosque and its compounds. In the [United Kingdom](856), many mosques are used as community centres. They are also used to teach about Islam. Religious [festival](43661)s and gatherings are held in mosques. Weddings are one example. Mosques have rules to control what people do inside. One of these is that it is disrespectful to disturb another person who is worshipping.
Many mosques are known for their [Islamic architecture](116606). The earliest mosques, opened in [7th century](15637) were open-air spaces. They are the _[Quba Mosque](134713)_ and _Masjid al-Nabawi_. Later Mosques were buildings that were specially designed. Nowadays, mosques are in every [continent](117), except [Antarctica](1976).
## Architecture
Many mosques are famous works of [architecture](49). They are often built in a style that has stayed the same for many centuries. Many mosques have prayer halls, [dome](27444)s, and [minaret](134674)s. They may also have a [courtyard](178554). Mosques are often built with patterned walls.
Mosques were first built on the [Arabian Peninsula](3593). The Muslims who built them used old architectural styles. They also combined these styles in new ways. A major influence was the [palace](46654)s built during the [Parthia](54938)n and [Sassanid](103047) [dynasties](43686) of Persia. The _[Sarvestan palace](178110)_ from the Sassanid era is a good example of this. It has an [arch](13221)ed entrance and a central dome. These features already existed in Persia before Islam.
After the Arab invasion of Persia, the new style, with its Sassanid influence, was used for the new Islamic world. Many forms of mosques have developed in different regions of the Islamic world. Important mosque types include the early Abbasid mosques, T-type mosques, and the central-dome mosques of [Anatolia](7303). In the [20th century](3407), many countries that grew rich from [oil](4113) paid for the building of many new mosques. The rulers of these countries often hired leading architects to design these mosques. They included non-Muslims.
### Arab plan
Many early mosques have a square or [rectangular](4892) plan. They also have a prayer hall and an enclosed courtyard. This is known as _Arab-plan_. The first mosques of this type were built during the [Umayyad Dynasty](1039957).
The flat [roof](13258) of the prayer hall was supported by [column](45784)s. Many rows of columns were needed to support such roofs; this is called "[hypostyle architecture](178111)". One of the most famous hypostyle mosques is the [Mezquita de Córdoba](117188) in [Spain](219832). It is supported by over 850 columns.
In the warm Mediterranean and Middle Eastern [climate](1970)s, the courtyard served to hold the large number of worshippers during Friday prayers. Often, hypostyle mosques have outer arcades. They allow the visitors to enjoy the [shade](21017). Arab-plan mosques were built mostly during the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties. The Arab plan was very simple, which did not allow for much further development. This caused that style of mosque to fall out of favour.
### Central dome
The [Ottomans](16844) began building _central dome mosques_ in the [fifteenth century](15589). These mosques have a large dome centered over the prayer hall. There may also be smaller domes, which are off-center over the prayer hall or the rest of the mosque. This style was heavily influenced by the Byzantine religious architecture with its use of central domes.
### Iwan
_Iwan mosques_ are famous for their domed rooms and _[iwan](178119)s_. Iwans are spaces with an arched roof. They have an opening at one end. One or more iwans face a central courtyard that serves as the prayer hall. The style borrows from pre-Islamic Iranian architecture. Most mosques with this style are in [Iran](3772).
### Minarets
Most mosques have minarets. Minarets are tall [tower](12433)s. Usually they are at one of the corners of the mosque. The top of the minaret is the highest point in the mosque, and usually the highest point in the area around the mosque. The tallest minaret in the world is in the [Hassan II Mosque](178120) in [Casablanca](22060), [Morocco](15294).
The first mosques had no minarets. The most [conservative](7235) Islamic groups, like _Wahhabis_, still avoid building minarets. They see them as simply a fancy decoration and unnecessary. The first minaret was built in 665 in [Basra](97766) during the [reign](526623) of the Umayyad [caliph](41983) Muawiyah I. Muawiyah encouraged the building of minarets, as they were supposed to be the same as [bell tower](178187)s on [Christian](170) [church](142)es. Because of this, mosque architects used the shape of the bell tower for their minarets. Both the minaret and the bell tower serve the same purpose — to call the faithful to prayer.
Before the five required daily prayers, a _[muezzin](178188)_ calls the worshippers to [prayer](30055) from the minaret. In many countries like Singapore where Muslims are not the majority, mosques are stopped from loudly playing the call to prayer. The main problem is the use of [electronic](3659) amplification of the call, which is now widely used by mosques.
### Domes
The [dome](27444)s were often placed directly above the main prayer hall. They represent the universe that Allah created. At first, these domes were small. They only took up a small part of the roof near the _[mihrab](178191)_. Later, they took the whole roof above the prayer hall.
Domes normally have the shape of a [hemisphere](31981). The [Mughals](29270) in [India](391) popularized [onion](45155)-shaped domes in [South Asia](25177) and Persia. Some mosques have several domes, as well as the main large dome. The other domes are often smaller.
Domes would help the _imam_ be heard, as the sound waves would bounce in and then out of the dome making the voice louder.
### Prayer hall
All mosques have a [prayer](11277) hall, which is also called _[musalla](178236)_. Normally, there is no [furniture](32599) in it except for prayer mats or rugs. These are necessary, as Islamic prayer is usually done [knee](30128)ling.
Some mosques have Arabic calligraphy and _[Qur'an](4449)ic_ verses on the walls to help worshipers focus on the beauty of Islam and its holiest book, the _Qur'an_, as well as for decoration.
The _qiblah wall_ is usually at the other side of the entrance to the prayer hall. This wall is specially decorated. In a properly sited mosque, it will be set perpendicular to a line leading to [Mecca](3592). People pray in rows parallel to the _qiblah_ wall. They arrange themselves so they face [Mecca](3592). In the _qiblah_ wall, usually at its center, is the _[mihrab](178191)_, a niche or depression showing the direction of [Mecca](3592). The _mihrab_ serves as the place where the [imam](114886) leads the five daily prayers.
### Washing (wudhu)
All people must wash themselves before they pray. Mosques often have [fountain](166946)s or other facilities for washing in their entrances or courtyards, so that people can perform the washing [ritual](25603) before prayer.
At very small mosques, worshippers may use restrooms for their ritual washing, or wu'du. In traditional mosques, there is often a building specially for washing. This is often in the center of the courtyard. In the prayer halls, people must not wear shoes for much the same reason.
### Modern features
Modern mosques should appeal to the community they serve. For this reason, other facilities may also be available at the mosque, like [health clinics](92033), [libraries](446), and sports halls.
### The inside of mosques
There may be decorative [tile](49470)s, [plaster](134668) or coloured [mosaic](99830)s on the walls. There are no pictures or statues.
### Prayers
Adult Muslims are expected to pray five times a day. Most mosques have formal prayers for each of these times. If performing the prayer is difficult, for example for ill people, then exceptions are made.
Mosques also hold a special prayer service, called _jumuah_. This is done once a week. It is a form of [Sabbath](434712) and replaces the Friday prayers at the mosque. Daily prayers can be done anywhere. However, Muslims are expected to do their Friday prayer at the mosque.
When a Muslim dies, a funeral prayer is normally held. It is held outdoors in a courtyard or square close to the mosque. The prayers have all the worshippers present, including the imam, taking part. During [eclipse](98441)s, mosques will host special prayers called [eclipse prayers](178311).
There are two large holidays (_Eids_) in the [Islamic calendar](59641). During these days, there are special prayers at mosques in the morning. Larger mosques will normally hold them for their own communities as well as the people from smaller local mosques. Mosques, especially those in countries where Muslims are the majority, will also host _Eid_ prayers outside in courtyards or [town square](175190)s.
### Ramadan events
There are many events in _[Ramadan](26221)_, Islam's holiest month. During _Ramadan_, Muslims must [fast](22480) during the day. Mosques organise _[iftar](178295)_ dinners after sunset. These are done after the fourth required prayer of the day. Part of the food is given by members of the community, which creates nightly [potluck](178296) dinners. The community contribution to these dinners is required. For this reason, mosques with smaller communities may not be able to hold the _iftar_ dinners daily.
Some mosques will also hold meals in the morning before [dawn](22099). Mosques will often invite poorer members of the community to these meals. Islam sees giving [charity](340319) during Ramadan as good acts.
Larger mosques sometimes offer special, optional prayers. They are done after the last required prayer of the day. During each night of prayers, one member of the community who has memorized the entire Qur’an will recite a part of the book. It can last for up to two hours. Sometimes, several such people (not necessarily of the local community) take turns to do this. During the last ten days of Ramadan, larger mosques will host all-night programs to observe _Laylat al-Qadr_. It is the night Muslims believe that the [Islamic prophet](93770) [Muhammad](12702) first received Qur'anic revelations. On that night, between [sunset](27347) and [sunrise](178224), mosques employ speakers to teach the worshipers about Islam. Mosques or the community usually provide meals at times through the night.
## Political functions
During the late twentieth century, more and more mosques have been used for political purposes. Modern-day mosques in the Western world want to educate good citizens. The details differ greatly from mosque to mosque and from country to country.
### Advocacy
Countries with small Muslim populations use mosques as a way to support civic participation. They are more likely to do this than Muslim-majority countries of the [Greater Middle East](121299). American mosques host [voter registration](178247) and civic participation drives. In the United States, Muslims are often [immigrants](33614), or the children of immigrants. Mosques want to interest these people for politics. They also want to keep them informed about issues that concern the Muslim community. People who attend the services at the mosque regularly are more likely to take part in [protest](38249)s, to sign [petition](178248)s, and to involve themselves in political matters.
A link between [political views](51772) and mosque attendance can still be seen in other parts of the world. After the al-Askari Mosque bombing in February 2006, imams and other Islamic leaders used mosques and Friday prayers to call for calm and peace during the widespread [violence](54254).
Beginning in the late twentieth century and continuing into the early twenty-first century, a small number of mosques have also become a base for extremist imams to support [terrorism](3524) and [extreme Islamic ideals](64964). [Finsbury Park Mosque](178257) in [London](460) is a mosque that has been used in this manner.
### Social conflict
Like other places of worship, mosques can be at the center of social [conflict](99271)s.
[Babri Mosque](178198) was the centre of such a conflict up until the early 1990s when it was demolished. Before a solution could be found, the mosque was destroyed by about 200,000 Hindus. It took place on 6 December 1992. The mosque was built by Babur to mark the birthplace of [Ram](29613). It was believed to be on a site of an earlier Hindu temple. The conflict over the mosque was directly linked to [rioting in Bombay](178352) (present-day [Mumbai](5114)) as well as bombings in 1993 that killed 257 people.
In February 2006, a bombing seriously damaged Iraq's al-Askari Mosque. This increased the existing tensions. The conflict between two Muslim groups in Iraq had already led to other bombings. However mosque bombings are not limited to Iraq. In June 2005, a [suicide bomber](21765) killed at least 19 people at an [Afghan](52) mosque. In April 2006, there were [two explosions](178197) at [India](391)'s [Jama Masjid](178195).
After the September 11 attacks, several American mosques were targets of attacks. These ranged from simple [vandalism](8585) to [arson](24357).
The [Jewish Defense League](178344) was suspected of plotting to bomb the [King Fahd Mosque](178342) in [Culver City, California](178193). There were similar attacks in the [United Kingdom](856) after the [7 July 2005 London bombings](178201). Outside the [Western world](15897), in June 2001, the [Hassan Bek Mosque](178345) was the target of attacks. The attacks involved hundreds of [Israel](64543)is angry at Arabs for a previous attack.
### Saudi influence
Saudi involvement in building mosques around the world only goes back to the 1960s.
In the 1980s, the Saudi Arabian government began to pay for the building of mosques in countries around the world. An estimated [US$](2684)45 billion has been spent by the Saudi Arabian government for mosques and Islamic schools in foreign countries. _[Ain al-Yaqeen](178350)_, a Saudi newspaper, reported in 2002 that Saudi money may have helped to build as many as 1,500 mosques and 2,000 other Islamic centers. Saudi citizens have also given a lot of money to mosques in the Islamic world, especially in countries where they see Muslims as poor and oppressed. Following the fall of the [Soviet Union](3600), in 1992, mosques in [Afghanistan](52) received money from Saudi citizens. The King Fahd Mosque in [Culver City, California](178193) and the Islamic [Cultural Center](178346) of Italy in [Rome](2875) are two of Saudi Arabia's largest investments in foreign mosques as former Saudi king Fahd bin Abdul Aziz al-Saud gave [US$](2684)8 million and [US$](2684)50 million to the two mosques, respectively.
## Rules and behaviour in mosques
In a mosque, people should keep focused on worshiping _Allah_. For this reason, there are a number of rules about the correct behaviour in a mosque. Some of these rules are the same all over the world, such as no shoes should be worn in the prayer hall. Other rules are different from mosque to mosque.
### Prayer leader
It is generally seen as good to have someone who leads the prayers, though this is not strictly necessary. The person who usually leads the prayers is called _imam_. He must be a free and honest man. He should also be an authority when it comes to answering questions on religion. In mosques that were built or that are kept up by the government, the imam is selected by the ruler. In private mosques, the community selects the imam, through [majority voting](178194).
Only men may lead prayers for men. Women are allowed to lead prayers for congregations where there are only women.
### Attending a mosque
In addition to washing, there are other rules that also apply to those who enter the mosque, even if they do not wish to pray there. It is forbidden to wear shoes in the [carpet](33269)ed area of the prayer hall. Some mosques also do not allow wearing shoes in other parts, even though these may not be devoted to praying.
[Islam](219592) requires that its believers wear [clothes](25444) that show [modesty](140643). As a result, both men and women must follow this rule when they attend a mosque (though mosques may not always enforce the rules). Men are supposed to come to the mosque wearing loose and clean clothes that do not show the shape of the body. Similarly, women who come to the mosque are expected to wear loose clothing, shirts, pants that cover to the wrists and ankles and cover their heads such as with a [hijab](64666). Many Muslims, regardless of their ethnic background, wear [Middle eastern](4368) clothing associated with Arabic Islam to special occasions and prayers at mosques.
Mosques are places of worship. For this reason, those inside the mosque should be respectful to those who are praying. Loud talking or discussion of topics that could be disrespectful, is forbidden in areas where people are praying. It is also considered as rude to walk in front of Muslims in prayer or otherwise disturb them.
### Men and women pray in different parts
Islamic law requires men and women to be separated in the prayer hall. Ideally, women should pray behind men. The second [caliph](41983) Umar at one time stopped women from attending mosques, especially at night, because he feared they may be teased by males, so he made them to pray at home. Sometimes a special part of the mosque was railed off for women; for example, the governor of Mecca in 870 had ropes tied between the columns to make a separate place for women.
Many mosques today will put the women behind a barrier or partition or in another room. Mosques in [South](25177) and [Southeast Asia](25254) put men and women in separate rooms, as the divisions were built into them centuries ago. In nearly two-thirds of American mosques, women pray behind partitions or in separate areas, not in the main prayer hall; some mosques do not admit women at all. Although there are sections only for women and children, the [Grand Mosque](178206) in [Mecca](3592) is desegregated.
### Non-Muslims in mosques
A few scholars of [Islamic law](60077) believe that non-Muslims may be allowed into mosques, as long as they do not sleep or eat there. Followers of the _[Maliki](178202)_ school of [Islamic jurisprudence](64705) disagree. They say that non-Muslims may not be allowed into mosques at all.
Different countries have different opinions on the question. Nearly all the mosques in the [Arabian Peninsula](3593) as well as [Morocco](15294) do not allow non-Muslims. The [Hassan II Mosque](178120) in [Casablanca](22060) is one of only two mosques in Morocco currently open to non-Muslims.
In modern-day [Saudi Arabia](6350), the Grand Mosque and all of [Mecca](3592) are open only to Muslims. Likewise, the Masjid al-Nabawi and the city of [Medina](60278) that surrounds it are also off-limits to those who do not practice Islam. For mosques in other areas, it has most commonly been taken that non-Muslims may only enter mosques if granted permission to do so by Muslims and if they have a proper reason.
In modern [Turkey](2860) non-Muslim tourists are allowed to enter any mosque, but must obey the rules of [decorum](178210). Visiting a mosque is allowed only between prayers; visitors must wear long trousers and take off their shoes; women must cover their heads; no photos; no loud talk is allowed. No references to other religions are allowed (no crosses on necklaces, no cross gestures etc.).
However, there are also many other places in the west as well as the Islamic world where non-Muslims are welcome to enter mosques. Most mosques in the [United States](219587), for example, report receiving non-Muslim visitors every month. Many Mosques throughout the United States welcome non-Muslims as a sign of openness to the rest of the community and to encourage conversions to Islam.
### Dogs
Dogs are usually banned from entering mosques, but on 24 September 2008, the Muslim Law Council UK made special ruling, called a _[fatwa](38058)_, which granted a blind Muslim permission to take his guide dog into the mosque.
## Mosques as hostels
It is common for a smaller mosque to serve as a [hostel](76728) for Muslims on _haj_ ([pilgrimage](12387) to Mecca). Sometimes mosques are used for [refugee](21604)s, or as temporary homes for homeless people. Obligations to neighbours in Islam are very strict, and specific. In the [Qur'an](4449) Mohammed said that a person who helps others in the hour of need, and who helps the oppressed; that person God will help on the Day of Travail (agony). There are other commands, such as helping the poor and being nice to people. An important part of being Muslim, or just being part of the mosque, is taking care of people who need help. A mosque is a social, as well as a religious, group.
A madrassa is a little different from a mosque. A madrassa focuses on teaching Islam, usually to children and young people.
## Mosques in Spain
When Spain was under Muslim control, some of the most beautiful buildings were mosques. After 1491, Spain was under Christian control. However, the Christians did not tear down the mosques. They simply put a crucifix in them to make them into churches. These mosques influenced the [Renaissance](25297) [architecture](49) (way of building) in Europe. | A **mosque** is a place where Muslims worship. The word _mosque_ comes from the Arabic word _masjid_. A larger, 'collective', mosque is called a _masjid jāmi_. Larger mosques offer more services to their community.
For many Muslim people, a mosque is more than a place of worship. Muslims worship, study and discuss Islam, and do many other things in a mosque and its compounds. In the United Kingdom, many mosques are used as community centres. They are also used to teach about Islam. Religious festivals and gatherings are held in mosques. Weddings are one example. Mosques have rules to control what people do inside. One of these is that it is disrespectful to disturb another person who is worshipping.
Many mosques are known for their Islamic architecture. The earliest mosques, opened in 7th century were open-air spaces. They are the _Quba Mosque_ and _Masjid al-Nabawi_. Later Mosques were buildings that were specially designed. Nowadays, mosques are in every continent, except Antarctica.
## Architecture
Many mosques are famous works of architecture. They are often built in a style that has stayed the same for many centuries. Many mosques have prayer halls, domes, and minarets. They may also have a courtyard. Mosques are often built with patterned walls.
Mosques were first built on the Arabian Peninsula. The Muslims who built them used old architectural styles. They also combined these styles in new ways. A major influence was the palaces built during the Parthian and Sassanid dynasties of Persia. The _Sarvestan palace_ from the Sassanid era is a good example of this. It has an arched entrance and a central dome. These features already existed in Persia before Islam.
After the Arab invasion of Persia, the new style, with its Sassanid influence, was used for the new Islamic world. Many forms of mosques have developed in different regions of the Islamic world. Important mosque types include the early Abbasid mosques, T-type mosques, and the central-dome mosques of Anatolia. In the 20th century, many countries that grew rich from oil paid for the building of many new mosques. The rulers of these countries often hired leading architects to design these mosques. They included non-Muslims.
### Arab plan
Many early mosques have a square or rectangular plan. They also have a prayer hall and an enclosed courtyard. This is known as _Arab-plan_. The first mosques of this type were built during the Umayyad Dynasty.
The flat roof of the prayer hall was supported by columns. Many rows of columns were needed to support such roofs; this is called "hypostyle architecture". One of the most famous hypostyle mosques is the Mezquita de Córdoba in Spain. It is supported by over 850 columns.
In the warm Mediterranean and Middle Eastern climates, the courtyard served to hold the large number of worshippers during Friday prayers. Often, hypostyle mosques have outer arcades. They allow the visitors to enjoy the shade. Arab-plan mosques were built mostly during the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties. The Arab plan was very simple, which did not allow for much further development. This caused that style of mosque to fall out of favour.
### Central dome
The Ottomans began building _central dome mosques_ in the fifteenth century. These mosques have a large dome centered over the prayer hall. There may also be smaller domes, which are off-center over the prayer hall or the rest of the mosque. This style was heavily influenced by the Byzantine religious architecture with its use of central domes.
### Iwan
_Iwan mosques_ are famous for their domed rooms and _iwans_. Iwans are spaces with an arched roof. They have an opening at one end. One or more iwans face a central courtyard that serves as the prayer hall. The style borrows from pre-Islamic Iranian architecture. Most mosques with this style are in Iran.
### Minarets
Most mosques have minarets. Minarets are tall towers. Usually they are at one of the corners of the mosque. The top of the minaret is the highest point in the mosque, and usually the highest point in the area around the mosque. The tallest minaret in the world is in the Hassan II Mosque in Casablanca, Morocco.
The first mosques had no minarets. The most conservative Islamic groups, like _Wahhabis_, still avoid building minarets. They see them as simply a fancy decoration and unnecessary. The first minaret was built in 665 in Basra during the reign of the Umayyad caliph Muawiyah I. Muawiyah encouraged the building of minarets, as they were supposed to be the same as bell towers on Christian churches. Because of this, mosque architects used the shape of the bell tower for their minarets. Both the minaret and the bell tower serve the same purpose — to call the faithful to prayer.
Before the five required daily prayers, a _muezzin_ calls the worshippers to prayer from the minaret. In many countries like Singapore where Muslims are not the majority, mosques are stopped from loudly playing the call to prayer. The main problem is the use of electronic amplification of the call, which is now widely used by mosques.
### Domes
The domes were often placed directly above the main prayer hall. They represent the universe that Allah created. At first, these domes were small. They only took up a small part of the roof near the _mihrab_. Later, they took the whole roof above the prayer hall.
Domes normally have the shape of a hemisphere. The Mughals in India popularized onion-shaped domes in South Asia and Persia. Some mosques have several domes, as well as the main large dome. The other domes are often smaller.
Domes would help the _imam_ be heard, as the sound waves would bounce in and then out of the dome making the voice louder.
### Prayer hall
All mosques have a prayer hall, which is also called _musalla_. Normally, there is no furniture in it except for prayer mats or rugs. These are necessary, as Islamic prayer is usually done kneeling.
Some mosques have Arabic calligraphy and _Qur'anic_ verses on the walls to help worshipers focus on the beauty of Islam and its holiest book, the _Qur'an_, as well as for decoration.
The _qiblah wall_ is usually at the other side of the entrance to the prayer hall. This wall is specially decorated. In a properly sited mosque, it will be set perpendicular to a line leading to Mecca. People pray in rows parallel to the _qiblah_ wall. They arrange themselves so they face Mecca. In the _qiblah_ wall, usually at its center, is the _mihrab_, a niche or depression showing the direction of Mecca. The _mihrab_ serves as the place where the imam leads the five daily prayers.
### Washing (wudhu)
All people must wash themselves before they pray. Mosques often have fountains or other facilities for washing in their entrances or courtyards, so that people can perform the washing ritual before prayer.
At very small mosques, worshippers may use restrooms for their ritual washing, or wu'du. In traditional mosques, there is often a building specially for washing. This is often in the center of the courtyard. In the prayer halls, people must not wear shoes for much the same reason.
### Modern features
Modern mosques should appeal to the community they serve. For this reason, other facilities may also be available at the mosque, like health clinics, libraries, and sports halls.
### The inside of mosques
There may be decorative tiles, plaster or coloured mosaics on the walls. There are no pictures or statues.
### Prayers
Adult Muslims are expected to pray five times a day. Most mosques have formal prayers for each of these times. If performing the prayer is difficult, for example for ill people, then exceptions are made.
Mosques also hold a special prayer service, called _jumuah_. This is done once a week. It is a form of Sabbath and replaces the Friday prayers at the mosque. Daily prayers can be done anywhere. However, Muslims are expected to do their Friday prayer at the mosque.
When a Muslim dies, a funeral prayer is normally held. It is held outdoors in a courtyard or square close to the mosque. The prayers have all the worshippers present, including the imam, taking part. During eclipses, mosques will host special prayers called eclipse prayers.
There are two large holidays (_Eids_) in the Islamic calendar. During these days, there are special prayers at mosques in the morning. Larger mosques will normally hold them for their own communities as well as the people from smaller local mosques. Mosques, especially those in countries where Muslims are the majority, will also host _Eid_ prayers outside in courtyards or town squares.
### Ramadan events
There are many events in _Ramadan_, Islam's holiest month. During _Ramadan_, Muslims must fast during the day. Mosques organise _iftar_ dinners after sunset. These are done after the fourth required prayer of the day. Part of the food is given by members of the community, which creates nightly potluck dinners. The community contribution to these dinners is required. For this reason, mosques with smaller communities may not be able to hold the _iftar_ dinners daily.
Some mosques will also hold meals in the morning before dawn. Mosques will often invite poorer members of the community to these meals. Islam sees giving charity during Ramadan as good acts.
Larger mosques sometimes offer special, optional prayers. They are done after the last required prayer of the day. During each night of prayers, one member of the community who has memorized the entire Qur’an will recite a part of the book. It can last for up to two hours. Sometimes, several such people (not necessarily of the local community) take turns to do this. During the last ten days of Ramadan, larger mosques will host all-night programs to observe _Laylat al-Qadr_. It is the night Muslims believe that the Islamic prophet Muhammad first received Qur'anic revelations. On that night, between sunset and sunrise, mosques employ speakers to teach the worshipers about Islam. Mosques or the community usually provide meals at times through the night.
## Political functions
During the late twentieth century, more and more mosques have been used for political purposes. Modern-day mosques in the Western world want to educate good citizens. The details differ greatly from mosque to mosque and from country to country.
### Advocacy
Countries with small Muslim populations use mosques as a way to support civic participation. They are more likely to do this than Muslim-majority countries of the Greater Middle East. American mosques host voter registration and civic participation drives. In the United States, Muslims are often immigrants, or the children of immigrants. Mosques want to interest these people for politics. They also want to keep them informed about issues that concern the Muslim community. People who attend the services at the mosque regularly are more likely to take part in protests, to sign petitions, and to involve themselves in political matters.
A link between political views and mosque attendance can still be seen in other parts of the world. After the al-Askari Mosque bombing in February 2006, imams and other Islamic leaders used mosques and Friday prayers to call for calm and peace during the widespread violence.
Beginning in the late twentieth century and continuing into the early twenty-first century, a small number of mosques have also become a base for extremist imams to support terrorism and extreme Islamic ideals. Finsbury Park Mosque in London is a mosque that has been used in this manner.
### Social conflict
Like other places of worship, mosques can be at the center of social conflicts.
Babri Mosque was the centre of such a conflict up until the early 1990s when it was demolished. Before a solution could be found, the mosque was destroyed by about 200,000 Hindus. It took place on 6 December 1992. The mosque was built by Babur to mark the birthplace of Ram. It was believed to be on a site of an earlier Hindu temple. The conflict over the mosque was directly linked to rioting in Bombay (present-day Mumbai) as well as bombings in 1993 that killed 257 people.
In February 2006, a bombing seriously damaged Iraq's al-Askari Mosque. This increased the existing tensions. The conflict between two Muslim groups in Iraq had already led to other bombings. However mosque bombings are not limited to Iraq. In June 2005, a suicide bomber killed at least 19 people at an Afghan mosque. In April 2006, there were two explosions at India's Jama Masjid.
After the September 11 attacks, several American mosques were targets of attacks. These ranged from simple vandalism to arson.
The Jewish Defense League was suspected of plotting to bomb the King Fahd Mosque in Culver City, California. There were similar attacks in the United Kingdom after the 7 July 2005 London bombings. Outside the Western world, in June 2001, the Hassan Bek Mosque was the target of attacks. The attacks involved hundreds of Israelis angry at Arabs for a previous attack.
### Saudi influence
Saudi involvement in building mosques around the world only goes back to the 1960s.
In the 1980s, the Saudi Arabian government began to pay for the building of mosques in countries around the world. An estimated US$45 billion has been spent by the Saudi Arabian government for mosques and Islamic schools in foreign countries. _Ain al-Yaqeen_, a Saudi newspaper, reported in 2002 that Saudi money may have helped to build as many as 1,500 mosques and 2,000 other Islamic centers. Saudi citizens have also given a lot of money to mosques in the Islamic world, especially in countries where they see Muslims as poor and oppressed. Following the fall of the Soviet Union, in 1992, mosques in Afghanistan received money from Saudi citizens. The King Fahd Mosque in Culver City, California and the Islamic Cultural Center of Italy in Rome are two of Saudi Arabia's largest investments in foreign mosques as former Saudi king Fahd bin Abdul Aziz al-Saud gave US$8 million and US$50 million to the two mosques, respectively.
## Rules and behaviour in mosques
In a mosque, people should keep focused on worshiping _Allah_. For this reason, there are a number of rules about the correct behaviour in a mosque. Some of these rules are the same all over the world, such as no shoes should be worn in the prayer hall. Other rules are different from mosque to mosque.
### Prayer leader
It is generally seen as good to have someone who leads the prayers, though this is not strictly necessary. The person who usually leads the prayers is called _imam_. He must be a free and honest man. He should also be an authority when it comes to answering questions on religion. In mosques that were built or that are kept up by the government, the imam is selected by the ruler. In private mosques, the community selects the imam, through majority voting.
Only men may lead prayers for men. Women are allowed to lead prayers for congregations where there are only women.
### Attending a mosque
In addition to washing, there are other rules that also apply to those who enter the mosque, even if they do not wish to pray there. It is forbidden to wear shoes in the carpeted area of the prayer hall. Some mosques also do not allow wearing shoes in other parts, even though these may not be devoted to praying.
Islam requires that its believers wear clothes that show modesty. As a result, both men and women must follow this rule when they attend a mosque (though mosques may not always enforce the rules). Men are supposed to come to the mosque wearing loose and clean clothes that do not show the shape of the body. Similarly, women who come to the mosque are expected to wear loose clothing, shirts, pants that cover to the wrists and ankles and cover their heads such as with a hijab. Many Muslims, regardless of their ethnic background, wear Middle eastern clothing associated with Arabic Islam to special occasions and prayers at mosques.
Mosques are places of worship. For this reason, those inside the mosque should be respectful to those who are praying. Loud talking or discussion of topics that could be disrespectful, is forbidden in areas where people are praying. It is also considered as rude to walk in front of Muslims in prayer or otherwise disturb them.
### Men and women pray in different parts
Islamic law requires men and women to be separated in the prayer hall. Ideally, women should pray behind men. The second caliph Umar at one time stopped women from attending mosques, especially at night, because he feared they may be teased by males, so he made them to pray at home. Sometimes a special part of the mosque was railed off for women; for example, the governor of Mecca in 870 had ropes tied between the columns to make a separate place for women.
Many mosques today will put the women behind a barrier or partition or in another room. Mosques in South and Southeast Asia put men and women in separate rooms, as the divisions were built into them centuries ago. In nearly two-thirds of American mosques, women pray behind partitions or in separate areas, not in the main prayer hall; some mosques do not admit women at all. Although there are sections only for women and children, the Grand Mosque in Mecca is desegregated.
### Non-Muslims in mosques
A few scholars of Islamic law believe that non-Muslims may be allowed into mosques, as long as they do not sleep or eat there. Followers of the _Maliki_ school of Islamic jurisprudence disagree. They say that non-Muslims may not be allowed into mosques at all.
Different countries have different opinions on the question. Nearly all the mosques in the Arabian Peninsula as well as Morocco do not allow non-Muslims. The Hassan II Mosque in Casablanca is one of only two mosques in Morocco currently open to non-Muslims.
In modern-day Saudi Arabia, the Grand Mosque and all of Mecca are open only to Muslims. Likewise, the Masjid al-Nabawi and the city of Medina that surrounds it are also off-limits to those who do not practice Islam. For mosques in other areas, it has most commonly been taken that non-Muslims may only enter mosques if granted permission to do so by Muslims and if they have a proper reason.
In modern Turkey non-Muslim tourists are allowed to enter any mosque, but must obey the rules of decorum. Visiting a mosque is allowed only between prayers; visitors must wear long trousers and take off their shoes; women must cover their heads; no photos; no loud talk is allowed. No references to other religions are allowed (no crosses on necklaces, no cross gestures etc.).
However, there are also many other places in the west as well as the Islamic world where non-Muslims are welcome to enter mosques. Most mosques in the United States, for example, report receiving non-Muslim visitors every month. Many Mosques throughout the United States welcome non-Muslims as a sign of openness to the rest of the community and to encourage conversions to Islam.
### Dogs
Dogs are usually banned from entering mosques, but on 24 September 2008, the Muslim Law Council UK made special ruling, called a _fatwa_, which granted a blind Muslim permission to take his guide dog into the mosque.
## Mosques as hostels
It is common for a smaller mosque to serve as a hostel for Muslims on _haj_ (pilgrimage to Mecca). Sometimes mosques are used for refugees, or as temporary homes for homeless people. Obligations to neighbours in Islam are very strict, and specific. In the Qur'an Mohammed said that a person who helps others in the hour of need, and who helps the oppressed; that person God will help on the Day of Travail (agony). There are other commands, such as helping the poor and being nice to people. An important part of being Muslim, or just being part of the mosque, is taking care of people who need help. A mosque is a social, as well as a religious, group.
A madrassa is a little different from a mosque. A madrassa focuses on teaching Islam, usually to children and young people.
## Mosques in Spain
When Spain was under Muslim control, some of the most beautiful buildings were mosques. After 1491, Spain was under Christian control. However, the Christians did not tear down the mosques. They simply put a crucifix in them to make them into churches. These mosques influenced the Renaissance architecture (way of building) in Europe. | high | false | false |
525 | Mammal | **Mammals** are in the [class](34888) **Mammalia**. They are a group of [vertebrate](5899) animals. They have [fur](15566) or [hair](359) and very precise temperature regulation.
With the exception of the [monotreme](31316)s, all mammals bear live young. Unlike other [vertebrate](5899)s, they are the only animals that produce milk for their young through their mammary glands. Parental care of the young is universal among mammals, sometimes for long periods.
Mammals became the dominant land animals after non-bird dinosaurs were eliminated. Recent work helped to explain their success: [epigenetics](214735) seems to have started in early mammals.
### Reproductive cycle
Most [marsupial](10624) and eutherian mammals have a reproductive cycle known as the [oestrous cycle](378264) (U.S: estrous cycle). Females are sexually active in the oestrous stage, when they are 'on heat' for a few days each month. If an [ovum](43946) is not fertilized, the [endometrium](43627) ([uterus](19012) lining) is resorbed. Oestrus cycles may occur once or twice a year, or many times a year. Each type of mammals has its own frequency.
[Human](502310)s and [primate](21276)s, are quite different. They have a [menstrual cycle](126107). In this case, females are sexually receptive at any time, but only fertile when an ovum is released from an ovary. In this case, the endometrium (if not needed for an fertilised egg) is discarded. In this system, eggs are released from the ovaries mostly in the middle of the cycle, away from the menstrual period. This ovulation is 'concealed', meaning, it is not obvious when it occurs. This process, so it is thought, tends to keep the male and female together, which is unusual in mammals with the oestrous cycle. Keeping males and females together is related to the long learning period of primates.
### Skeleton
One [diagnostic](289899) feature of mammals is the lower [jaw](102070). Unlike earlier forms, it is a single bone, the dentary. This is one feature which can be seen in fossils, or at least those which are complete enough to have the lower jaw. Another diagnostic feature is the ear ossicles. Mammals have three little bones in their inner ear. These ear ossicles are bones which were, long ago, part of the lower jaw in early proto-mammals.
There are quite a number of other features in the skull and limbs, so that it is usually possible to identify and describe a mammal from its skeleton alone, or even a partial skeleton.
### Neocortex and behaviour
Another diagnostic feature is the [neocortex](272296) of the [brain](272166), which no other vertebrate has. This is involved in the kind of flexible behaviour and [learning](16872) typical of mammals. Reptiles and birds have much of their behaviour controlled by "inherited behaviour chains", which roughly translates as "[instinct](201936)s". Almost all animals can do some learning, but mammals do far more than other vertebrates. Their behaviour is much more flexible than lizards, for example, and that is made possible by their neocortex.
Other things in the life of mammals seem to be connected with this flexibility and learning. [Play](375687) is a kind of early learning period in which, according to one theory, mammals develop skills which they will need in life. All mammalian young play, and this is very obvious in the more intelligent mammals ([primate](21276)s, [cats](8432)).
The emotions of mammals are very noticeable, and rather similar to ours. It is possible, and quite common, for humans to have a friendly relationship with another mammal. Any kind of relationship with a snake or a [gecko](48714) will be less deep because they can't show emotions as easily (for example). This is because reptiles don't have many of the same ways to show emotions (like smiling, wagging tails, etc) that mammals do, but they can still feel happy, and can recognize owners.
## Primarily nocturnal
Once, most mammals were nocturnal. Today, many (more than two-thirds) are still nocturnal. It makes a lot of sense when you realise that the daytime was ruled by dinosaurs for so long, Primates (except humans) sleep at night in trees. They are active during the daytime, and some come out onto more open ground.
[Baboon](236653)s (and humans!) are rather special in that they come out onto the grassland in the daytime. Humans are fully daytime animals, and can see colours quite well (nocturnal animals have poor colour vision, but can see in the dusk.).
### Other items
There are about 50 characters which are typical of mammals: some of the most important are discussed above. A few more examples will make it clear that mammals are very different from reptiles and birds:
- [Sweat](27878) glands, and control of body temperature within limits.
- Tooth replacement: two sets, and no continuous replacement. Enamel on the tooth surface. Reptile teeth are all alike (apart from size); mammal teeth follow a set pattern (starting at the front): [incisor](56985)s, canines, [premolar](286709)s and [molar](106175)s.
- Occipital condyles. Two knobs at the base of the skull fit into the topmost neck [vertebra](72053); most tetrapods have only one such knob.
- With the exception of the five monotreme species, all other mammals have an outlet for food waste which is separate from the [urinogenital](533903) outlet. Monotremes, reptiles and birds have a common [cloaca](298197) at the rear.
- Mammals [excrete](259668) [urea](158810); reptiles and birds excrete [uric acid](464994).
- [Colour vision](278960) is defective or absent in most mammals. [Primate](21276)s are the exception, but we know their colour vision re-evolved from ancestors which lacked it.
- In reptiles and birds the [blood vessel](13449) which carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle of the heart is on the right side of the body; but in mammals it is on the left side.
- There are many features of the skeleton that mammals share:
- Their neck almost always has seven vertebrae, no matter how long it is.
- Their lower jaw is made of just a single bone on each side, the dentary.
- Their [inner ear](337346) has three tiny bones, the [ossicles](287090): malleus, incus and stapes.
In the language of [cladistics](77621), the 50 unique characters are [apomorphies](449837) which prove that mammals are a clade descended from a common ancestor.
## Main groups
All mammals feed milk to their young, and protect and look after them.
The vast majority of mammal species give [birth](7637) to live young, these are the [placenta](27967)l mammals, most of which are classified as [Eutheria](74186) and a small number are classified as marsupials.
Marsupials are mammals with pouches to carry young in, like the [kangaroo](17365).
There are only five species (the [monotreme](31316) mammals) that lay [eggs](218024), the duck-billed [platypus](3437) _Ornithorhynchus_, and four species of spiny anteater _[Echidna](16731)_. The [monotreme](31316)s are confined to [Australia](27) and [New Guinea](31570), and are the sole survivors of an earlier group of mammals.
## Modes of life
By number of species, mammals (with 5488 species), are not the most successful vertebrates. Birds, with about 10,000 species have nearly twice as many, and reptiles have just as many as birds. Fish have even more species. There are 27,000 species of fish, of which nearly 26,000 are bony fish. However, the word "fish" covers more than one class of animal.
Most zoologists regard mammals as a successful group of animals. One reason is that they are successful in all habitats on Earth. In the air, in the water, in forests, in the colder regions of the world, and above all on grasslands, where they are outstandingly successful.
In the air, the bats (Chiroptera) are the mammalian order with the most species. They 'own' the nighttime, since birds are largely [diurnal](63102) (daytime) animals. Bats are hugely successful, mostly as nighttime predators of insects.
Seagoing mammals, the [Cetacea](31023) and the [pinniped](99855)s, are very successful and significant predators. This includes the [whale](7597)s, [seals](99855), [walrus](111381), [dolphin](14162)s and others.
The terrestrial mammals are fewer in number of species than lizards, but they are huge in individual numbers, and far more important in the life of the terrestrial [biome](55091)s. Their ability to move from place to place and adapt has made them a most effective group. Many mammals live in cold places. These mammals have thick hair or [blubber](231837) to keep them warm. Others may live in rainforests. On land the [rodent](24244)s (rats, [mice](15901)) are hugely successful, more common in numbers than any other mammals. Large mammals on land have been hunted to extinction in some parts of the world, but the ones which remain are now better protected.
Last, but certainly not least, are the [primate](21276)s. Their natural [habitat](41575), with few exceptions, are the [forest](13253)s. Most live in the trees, with hands that grasp, good [colour vision](278960), and [intelligence](38080). In the [Pliocene](218886) period some moved out onto the [savanna](38281)s as [grassland](173807) replaced forests. Mankind is the result of this shift into the savannas.
## Taxonomy
The evolutionary relationships among land vertebrates is as follows:
- Tetrapoda (land vertebrates)
- Amphibia (lay eggs in water)
- Amniota (lay [cleidoic egg](218024)s)
- Sauropsida (all true '[reptile](15887)s')
- Synapsida (all '[mammal-like amniotes](218020)')
- Pelycosauria
- Therapsida (in particular, the Cynodontia)
- **Mammalia** (bear live young; milk; raise their young etc.)
This sort of classification is not traditional, but it does reflect our knowledge of palaeontology and [evolution](8740).
### Standardized textbook classification
A somewhat standardized classification system has been adopted by most current [mammalogy](15594) classroom textbooks. It is based on living animals. The following taxonomy of extant and recently extinct mammals is from Vaughan et al. 2000.
**Class Mammalia**
- **Subclass [Prototheria](35123)**: monotremes: [platypus](3437)es and [echidna](16731)s
- **Subclass [Theria](36768)**: live-bearing mammals
- Infraclass [Metatheria](31320): marsupials
- Infraclass [Eutheria](74186): placentals
### List of living orders
Mammals can be divided in a number of orders:
- [Monotreme](31316)s (monotremata)
- [Marsupial](10624)s (marsupialia)
- [Eutheria](74186)
- Superorder [Xenarthra](40117)
- Order [Pilosa](40103)
- Order Cingulata
- Superorder [Afrotheria](112759)
- Order [Proboscidea](76012)
- Superorder [Laurasiatheria](112495)
- Insectivora (no longer used)
- Order [Eulipotyphla](76725)
- Order Chiroptera
- Order [Carnivora](31288)
- Order Perissodactyla
- Order Artiodactyla
- Order [Cetacea](31023)
- Superorder [Euarchontoglires](113097)
- Order Rodentia
- Order [Lagomorpha](34662)
- Order [Primate](21276)s
## Debate on the meaning of "mammalia"
Because two quite different dates are given in the taxobox, an explanation is needed. Rowe defines mammals as "the taxon originating with the most recent common ancestor of extant (living) Monotremata and [Theria](36768)". That puts the emphasis heavily on living mammals, where, as Rowe points out, the database of characters is extensive.
Kemp explains the problem with that approach: "If the definition of a mammal is based rigorously upon possession of all the characters of living mammals, then some fossil forms that are extremely mammalian in anatomy... are excluded".
"An altogether different perspective on defining Mammalia is based on traditional palaeobiological practice. An arbitrary decision is made about which characters to select as defining characters... Characters deemed appropriate are those reflecting the... fundamental mammalian biology. The essence of mammalian life is to be found in their endothermic temperature physiology, greatly enlarged [brain](4365), [dentition](14385) capable of chewing food, highly agile, energetic locomotion, and so on. The organisms that achieved this grade of overall organisation are deemed to be Mammalia... Around the end of the [Triassic](46202) period, about 205 mya, a number of fossils are found of very small animals that have [most] of the skeletal characters of modern mammals".
This difference in outlook explains the difference in the two dates given in the taxobox.
## Related pages
- [Mammalia (taxonomy)](15282) | **Mammals** are in the class **Mammalia**. They are a group of vertebrate animals. They have fur or hair and very precise temperature regulation.
With the exception of the monotremes, all mammals bear live young. Unlike other vertebrates, they are the only animals that produce milk for their young through their mammary glands. Parental care of the young is universal among mammals, sometimes for long periods.
Mammals became the dominant land animals after non-bird dinosaurs were eliminated. Recent work helped to explain their success: epigenetics seems to have started in early mammals.
### Reproductive cycle
Most marsupial and eutherian mammals have a reproductive cycle known as the oestrous cycle (U.S: estrous cycle). Females are sexually active in the oestrous stage, when they are 'on heat' for a few days each month. If an ovum is not fertilized, the endometrium (uterus lining) is resorbed. Oestrus cycles may occur once or twice a year, or many times a year. Each type of mammals has its own frequency.
Humans and primates, are quite different. They have a menstrual cycle. In this case, females are sexually receptive at any time, but only fertile when an ovum is released from an ovary. In this case, the endometrium (if not needed for an fertilised egg) is discarded. In this system, eggs are released from the ovaries mostly in the middle of the cycle, away from the menstrual period. This ovulation is 'concealed', meaning, it is not obvious when it occurs. This process, so it is thought, tends to keep the male and female together, which is unusual in mammals with the oestrous cycle. Keeping males and females together is related to the long learning period of primates.
### Skeleton
One diagnostic feature of mammals is the lower jaw. Unlike earlier forms, it is a single bone, the dentary. This is one feature which can be seen in fossils, or at least those which are complete enough to have the lower jaw. Another diagnostic feature is the ear ossicles. Mammals have three little bones in their inner ear. These ear ossicles are bones which were, long ago, part of the lower jaw in early proto-mammals.
There are quite a number of other features in the skull and limbs, so that it is usually possible to identify and describe a mammal from its skeleton alone, or even a partial skeleton.
### Neocortex and behaviour
Another diagnostic feature is the neocortex of the brain, which no other vertebrate has. This is involved in the kind of flexible behaviour and learning typical of mammals. Reptiles and birds have much of their behaviour controlled by "inherited behaviour chains", which roughly translates as "instincts". Almost all animals can do some learning, but mammals do far more than other vertebrates. Their behaviour is much more flexible than lizards, for example, and that is made possible by their neocortex.
Other things in the life of mammals seem to be connected with this flexibility and learning. Play is a kind of early learning period in which, according to one theory, mammals develop skills which they will need in life. All mammalian young play, and this is very obvious in the more intelligent mammals (primates, cats).
The emotions of mammals are very noticeable, and rather similar to ours. It is possible, and quite common, for humans to have a friendly relationship with another mammal. Any kind of relationship with a snake or a gecko will be less deep because they can't show emotions as easily (for example). This is because reptiles don't have many of the same ways to show emotions (like smiling, wagging tails, etc) that mammals do, but they can still feel happy, and can recognize owners.
## Primarily nocturnal
Once, most mammals were nocturnal. Today, many (more than two-thirds) are still nocturnal. It makes a lot of sense when you realise that the daytime was ruled by dinosaurs for so long, Primates (except humans) sleep at night in trees. They are active during the daytime, and some come out onto more open ground.
Baboons (and humans!) are rather special in that they come out onto the grassland in the daytime. Humans are fully daytime animals, and can see colours quite well (nocturnal animals have poor colour vision, but can see in the dusk.).
### Other items
There are about 50 characters which are typical of mammals: some of the most important are discussed above. A few more examples will make it clear that mammals are very different from reptiles and birds:
- Sweat glands, and control of body temperature within limits.
- Tooth replacement: two sets, and no continuous replacement. Enamel on the tooth surface. Reptile teeth are all alike (apart from size); mammal teeth follow a set pattern (starting at the front): incisors, canines, premolars and molars.
- Occipital condyles. Two knobs at the base of the skull fit into the topmost neck vertebra; most tetrapods have only one such knob.
- With the exception of the five monotreme species, all other mammals have an outlet for food waste which is separate from the urinogenital outlet. Monotremes, reptiles and birds have a common cloaca at the rear.
- Mammals excrete urea; reptiles and birds excrete uric acid.
- Colour vision is defective or absent in most mammals. Primates are the exception, but we know their colour vision re-evolved from ancestors which lacked it.
- In reptiles and birds the blood vessel which carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle of the heart is on the right side of the body; but in mammals it is on the left side.
- There are many features of the skeleton that mammals share:
- Their neck almost always has seven vertebrae, no matter how long it is.
- Their lower jaw is made of just a single bone on each side, the dentary.
- Their inner ear has three tiny bones, the ossicles: malleus, incus and stapes.
In the language of cladistics, the 50 unique characters are apomorphies which prove that mammals are a clade descended from a common ancestor.
## Main groups
All mammals feed milk to their young, and protect and look after them.
The vast majority of mammal species give birth to live young, these are the placental mammals, most of which are classified as Eutheria and a small number are classified as marsupials.
Marsupials are mammals with pouches to carry young in, like the kangaroo.
There are only five species (the monotreme mammals) that lay eggs, the duck-billed platypus _Ornithorhynchus_, and four species of spiny anteater _Echidna_. The monotremes are confined to Australia and New Guinea, and are the sole survivors of an earlier group of mammals.
## Modes of life
By number of species, mammals (with 5488 species), are not the most successful vertebrates. Birds, with about 10,000 species have nearly twice as many, and reptiles have just as many as birds. Fish have even more species. There are 27,000 species of fish, of which nearly 26,000 are bony fish. However, the word "fish" covers more than one class of animal.
Most zoologists regard mammals as a successful group of animals. One reason is that they are successful in all habitats on Earth. In the air, in the water, in forests, in the colder regions of the world, and above all on grasslands, where they are outstandingly successful.
In the air, the bats (Chiroptera) are the mammalian order with the most species. They 'own' the nighttime, since birds are largely diurnal (daytime) animals. Bats are hugely successful, mostly as nighttime predators of insects.
Seagoing mammals, the Cetacea and the pinnipeds, are very successful and significant predators. This includes the whales, seals, walrus, dolphins and others.
The terrestrial mammals are fewer in number of species than lizards, but they are huge in individual numbers, and far more important in the life of the terrestrial biomes. Their ability to move from place to place and adapt has made them a most effective group. Many mammals live in cold places. These mammals have thick hair or blubber to keep them warm. Others may live in rainforests. On land the rodents (rats, mice) are hugely successful, more common in numbers than any other mammals. Large mammals on land have been hunted to extinction in some parts of the world, but the ones which remain are now better protected.
Last, but certainly not least, are the primates. Their natural habitat, with few exceptions, are the forests. Most live in the trees, with hands that grasp, good colour vision, and intelligence. In the Pliocene period some moved out onto the savannas as grassland replaced forests. Mankind is the result of this shift into the savannas.
## Taxonomy
The evolutionary relationships among land vertebrates is as follows:
- Tetrapoda (land vertebrates)
- Amphibia (lay eggs in water)
- Amniota (lay cleidoic eggs)
- Sauropsida (all true 'reptiles')
- Synapsida (all 'mammal-like amniotes')
- Pelycosauria
- Therapsida (in particular, the Cynodontia)
- **Mammalia** (bear live young; milk; raise their young etc.)
This sort of classification is not traditional, but it does reflect our knowledge of palaeontology and evolution.
### Standardized textbook classification
A somewhat standardized classification system has been adopted by most current mammalogy classroom textbooks. It is based on living animals. The following taxonomy of extant and recently extinct mammals is from Vaughan et al. 2000.
**Class Mammalia**
- **Subclass Prototheria**: monotremes: platypuses and echidnas
- **Subclass Theria**: live-bearing mammals
- Infraclass Metatheria: marsupials
- Infraclass Eutheria: placentals
### List of living orders
Mammals can be divided in a number of orders:
- Monotremes (monotremata)
- Marsupials (marsupialia)
- Eutheria
- Superorder Xenarthra
- Order Pilosa
- Order Cingulata
- Superorder Afrotheria
- Order Proboscidea
- Superorder Laurasiatheria
- Insectivora (no longer used)
- Order Eulipotyphla
- Order Chiroptera
- Order Carnivora
- Order Perissodactyla
- Order Artiodactyla
- Order Cetacea
- Superorder Euarchontoglires
- Order Rodentia
- Order Lagomorpha
- Order Primates
## Debate on the meaning of "mammalia"
Because two quite different dates are given in the taxobox, an explanation is needed. Rowe defines mammals as "the taxon originating with the most recent common ancestor of extant (living) Monotremata and Theria". That puts the emphasis heavily on living mammals, where, as Rowe points out, the database of characters is extensive.
Kemp explains the problem with that approach: "If the definition of a mammal is based rigorously upon possession of all the characters of living mammals, then some fossil forms that are extremely mammalian in anatomy... are excluded".
"An altogether different perspective on defining Mammalia is based on traditional palaeobiological practice. An arbitrary decision is made about which characters to select as defining characters... Characters deemed appropriate are those reflecting the... fundamental mammalian biology. The essence of mammalian life is to be found in their endothermic temperature physiology, greatly enlarged brain, dentition capable of chewing food, highly agile, energetic locomotion, and so on. The organisms that achieved this grade of overall organisation are deemed to be Mammalia... Around the end of the Triassic period, about 205 mya, a number of fossils are found of very small animals that have [most] of the skeletal characters of modern mammals".
This difference in outlook explains the difference in the two dates given in the taxobox.
## Related pages
- Mammalia (taxonomy) | high | false | false |
528 | Number | A **number** is a mathematical object used to **count**, **measure**, and **label**:
- People use symbols to represent numbers; they call them numerals. Common places where numerals are used are for labeling, as in telephone numbers, for ordering, as in [serial number](157665)s, or to put a unique identifier, as in an ISBN, a unique number that can identify a [book](3686).
- [Cardinal number](8415)
- [Ordinal number](4973)
Numbers are also used for other things like counting. Numbers are used when things are measured. Numbers are used to study how the world works. [Mathematics](467) is a way to use numbers to learn about the world and make things. The study of the rules of the natural world is called [science](700). The work that uses numbers to make things is called [engineering](2816).
### Numbers for people
There are different ways of giving symbols to numbers. These methods are called [number systems](66499). The most common number system that people use is the _base 10_ number system. The _base 10_ number system is also called the [decimal number system](66498). The base 10 number system is common because people have 10 [finger](26683)s and 10 [toe](28019)s. There are 10 different symbols ([0](950), [1](5461), [2](5462), [3](5463), [4](5464), [5](5465), [6](5466), [7](5467), [8](5468), and [9](5469)) used in the base 10 number system. These 10 symbols are called digits.
A symbol for a number is made up of these 10 digits. The position of the digits shows how big the number is. For example, the number 23 in the decimal number system really means (2 times 10) plus 3. Similarly, 101 means 1 times a hundred (=100) plus 0 times 10 (=0) plus 1 times 1 (=1).
### Numbers for [machine](7240)s
Another number system is more common for machines. The machine number system is called the _[binary](45444)_ number system. The [binary number](7347) system is also called the base two number system. There are two different symbols (0 and 1) used in the base two number system. These two symbols are called bits.
A symbol for a binary number is made up of these two bit symbols. The position of the bit symbols shows how big the number is. For example, the number 10 in the binary number system really means 1 times 2 plus 0, and 101 means 1 times four (=4) plus 0 times two (=0) plus 1 times 1 (=1). The binary number 10 is the same as the decimal number 2. The binary number 101 is the same as the decimal number 5.
## Names of numbers
English has special names for some of the numbers in the [decimal](66498) number system that are "[powers](12285) of ten". All of these power of ten numbers in the decimal number system use just the symbol "1" and the symbol "0". For example, ten tens is the same as ten times ten, or one hundred. In symbols, this is "10 × 10 = 100". Also, ten hundreds is the same as ten times one hundred, or one thousand. In symbols, this is "10 × 100 = 10 × 10 × 10 = 1000". Some other powers of ten also have special names:
- [1](571) – one
- [10](5496) – ten
- 100 – one hundred
- 1,000 – one thousand
- [1,000,000](64775) – one million
When dealing with larger numbers than this, there are two different ways of naming the numbers in English. Under the "long scale", a new name is given every time the number is a million times larger than the last named number. It is also called the "British Standard". This scale used to be common in Britain, but is not often used in English-speaking countries today. It is still used in some other European nations.
Another scale is the "short scale", under which a new name is given every time a number is a thousand times larger than the last named number. This scale is a lot more common in most English-speaking nations today.
- 1,000,000,000 – one [billion](467299) (short scale), one milliard (long scale)
- 1,000,000,000,000 – one [trillion](310850) (short scale), one billion (long scale)
- 1,000,000,000,000,000 – one quadrillion (short scale), one billiard (long scale)
No number before 1,000 contains the letter A.
### Natural numbers
**[Natural number](7437)s** are the numbers which we normally use for counting: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, etc. Some people say that 0 is a natural number, too. The set of all natural numbers is written as .
Another name for these numbers is positive numbers. These numbers are sometimes written as +1 to show that they are different from the negative numbers. But not all positive numbers are natural (for example, is positive, but not natural).
If 0 is called a natural number, then the natural numbers are the same as the whole numbers. If 0 is not called a natural number, then the natural numbers are the same as the counting numbers. So if the words "natural numbers" are not used, then there will be less confusion about whether zero is included or not. But unfortunately, some say that zero is not a whole number, while others say that whole numbers can be negative. "Positive integers" and "non-negative integers" are another way to include zero or exclude zero, but only if people know those words.
### Negative numbers
**[Negative number](18528)s** are numbers less than zero.
One way to think of negative numbers is to use a _number line_. We call one point on this line zero. Then we will label (write the name of) every position on the line by how far to the right of the zero point is. For example, the point one is one centimeter to the right, and the point two is two centimeters to the right.
However, the point one centimeter to the left of the zero point cannot be point one, since there is already a point called one. We therefore call this point minus one (−1, as it is one centimeter away but in the opposite direction).
A drawing of a [number line](78215) is below.
All the normal operations of mathematics can be done with negative numbers:
- Adding a negative number to another is the same as taking away the positive number with the same numerals. For example, 5 + (−3) is the same as 5 − 3, and equals 2.
- Taking away a negative number from another is the same as adding the positive number with the same numerals. For example, 5 − (−3) is the same as 5 + 3, and equals 8.
- [Multiplying](482) two negative numbers together produces a positive number. For example, −5 times −3 is 15.
- Multiplying a negative number by a positive number, or multiply a positive number by a negative number, produces a negative result. For example, 5 times −3 is −15.
Since finding the [square root](18527) of a negative number is impossible for real numbers (as negative times negative equals positive for real numbers), the square root of -1 is given a special name: _i_. This is also called the [imaginary unit](35853).
### Integers
**[Integer](7436)s** are all the natural numbers, all their [opposites](69132), and the number zero. [Decimal numbers](66498) and fractions are not integers.
### Rational numbers
**[Rational number](12810)s** are numbers which can be written as [fractions](56416). This means that they can be written as _a_ divided by _b_, where the numbers _a_ and _b_ are integers, and _b_ is not zero.
Some rational numbers, such as 1/10, need a [finite](64541) number of digits after the decimal point to write them in [decimal](66498) form. The number one tenth is written in decimal form as 0.1. Numbers written with a finite decimal form are rational. Some rational numbers, such as 1/11, need an [infinite](395) number of digits after the decimal point to write them in decimal form. There is a repeating pattern to the digits following the decimal point. The number one eleventh is written in decimal form as 0.0909090909... .
A [percentage](3680) could be called a rational number, because a percentage like 7% can be written as the fraction 7/100. It can also be written as the decimal 0.07. Sometimes, a [ratio](25803) is considered as a rational number.
### Irrational numbers
**Irrational numbers** are numbers which cannot be written as a fraction, but do not have imaginary parts (explained later).
Irrational numbers often occur in [geometry](315). For example, if we have a square which has sides of 1 meter, the distance between opposite corners is the [square root](18527) of two, which equals 1.414213 ... . This is an irrational number. Mathematicians have [proved](92898) that the [square root](18527) of every natural number is either an integer or an irrational number.
One well-known irrational number is pi. This is the [circumference](49566) (distance around) of a circle divided by its [diameter](9194) (distance across). This number is the same for every circle. The number pi is approximately 3.1415926535 ... .
An irrational number cannot be fully written down in [decimal](66498) form. It would have an [infinite](395) number of digits after the decimal point, and unlike 0.333333 ..., these digits would not repeat forever.
### Real numbers
**[Real number](18196)s** is a name for all the sets of numbers listed above:
- The rational numbers, including integers
- The irrational numbers
The real numbers form the real line. This is all the numbers that do not involve [imaginary numbers](528).
### Imaginary numbers
**[Imaginary number](99925)s** are formed by real numbers multiplied by the number ***i***. This number is the [square root](18527) of minus one (−1).
There is no number in the real numbers which when squared, makes the number −1. Therefore, mathematicians invented a number. They called this number **i**, or the **imaginary unit**.
Imaginary numbers operate under the same rules as real numbers:
- The sum of two imaginary numbers is found by pulling out (factoring out) the **i**. For example, 2**i** + 3**i** = (2 + 3)**i** = 5**i**.
- The difference of two imaginary numbers is found similarly. For example, 5**i** − 3**i** = (5 − 3)**i** = 2**i**.
- When multiplying two imaginary numbers, remember that **i** × **i** (i<sup>2</sup>) is −1. For example, 5**i** × 3**i** = ( 5 × 3 ) × ( **i** × **i** ) = 15 × (−1) = −15.
Imaginary numbers were called _imaginary_ because when they were first found, many mathematicians did not think they existed. The person who _discovered_ imaginary numbers was [Gerolamo Cardano](103108) in the 1500s. The first to use the words _imaginary number_ was [René Descartes](12833). The first people to use these numbers were Leonard Euler and [Carl Friedrich Gauss](19467). Both lived in the [18th century](12978).
### Complex numbers
**[Complex number](19943)s** are numbers which have two parts; a _real_ part and an _imaginary_ part. Every type of number written above is also a complex number.
Complex numbers are a more general form of numbers. The complex numbers can be drawn on a number plane. This is composed of a real number line, and an imaginary number line.
3i|_
|
|
2i|_ . 2+2i
|
|
i|_
|
|
|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|
−2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
|
−i|_ .3−i
|
|
.−2−2i −2i|_
|
|
−3i|_
|
All of normal mathematics can be done with complex numbers:
- To add two complex numbers, add the real and imaginary parts separately. For example, (2 + 3**i**) + (3 + 2**i**) = (2 + 3) + (3 + 2)**i**= 5 + 5**i**.
- To subtract one complex number from another, subtract the real and imaginary parts separately. For example, (7 + 5**i**) − (3 + 3**i**) = (7 − 3) + (5 − 3)**i** = 4 + 2**i**.
To multiply two complex numbers is more complicated. It is easiest to describe in general terms, with two complex numbers a + b**i** and c + d**i**.
For example, (4 + 5**i**) × (3 + 2**i**) = (4 × 3 − 5 × 2) + (4 × 2 + 5 × 3)**i** = (12 − 10) + (8 + 15)**i** = 2 + 23**i**.
### Transcendental numbers
A real or complex number is called a _[transcendental number](50792)_ if it can **not** be obtained as a result of an algebraic [equation](8335) with integer coefficients.
Proving that a certain number is transcendental can be extremely difficult. Each transcendental number is also an irrational number. The first people to see that there were transcendental numbers were Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz and [Leonhard Euler](52029). The first to actually prove there were transcendental numbers was Joseph Liouville. He did this in [1844](4655).
Some well-known transcendental numbers include:
- [e](45060)
- π
- e<sup>a</sup> for algebraic a <samp>≠</samp> 0
## Related pages
- [Real analysis](184430)
- [Number theory](22857)
- [Pure mathematics](172744)
- Names of numbers in English | A **number** is a mathematical object used to **count**, **measure**, and **label**:
- People use symbols to represent numbers; they call them numerals. Common places where numerals are used are for labeling, as in telephone numbers, for ordering, as in serial numbers, or to put a unique identifier, as in an ISBN, a unique number that can identify a book.
- Cardinal number
- Ordinal number
Numbers are also used for other things like counting. Numbers are used when things are measured. Numbers are used to study how the world works. Mathematics is a way to use numbers to learn about the world and make things. The study of the rules of the natural world is called science. The work that uses numbers to make things is called engineering.
### Numbers for people
There are different ways of giving symbols to numbers. These methods are called number systems. The most common number system that people use is the _base 10_ number system. The _base 10_ number system is also called the decimal number system. The base 10 number system is common because people have 10 fingers and 10 toes. There are 10 different symbols (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9) used in the base 10 number system. These 10 symbols are called digits.
A symbol for a number is made up of these 10 digits. The position of the digits shows how big the number is. For example, the number 23 in the decimal number system really means (2 times 10) plus 3. Similarly, 101 means 1 times a hundred (=100) plus 0 times 10 (=0) plus 1 times 1 (=1).
### Numbers for machines
Another number system is more common for machines. The machine number system is called the _binary_ number system. The binary number system is also called the base two number system. There are two different symbols (0 and 1) used in the base two number system. These two symbols are called bits.
A symbol for a binary number is made up of these two bit symbols. The position of the bit symbols shows how big the number is. For example, the number 10 in the binary number system really means 1 times 2 plus 0, and 101 means 1 times four (=4) plus 0 times two (=0) plus 1 times 1 (=1). The binary number 10 is the same as the decimal number 2. The binary number 101 is the same as the decimal number 5.
## Names of numbers
English has special names for some of the numbers in the decimal number system that are "powers of ten". All of these power of ten numbers in the decimal number system use just the symbol "1" and the symbol "0". For example, ten tens is the same as ten times ten, or one hundred. In symbols, this is "10 × 10 = 100". Also, ten hundreds is the same as ten times one hundred, or one thousand. In symbols, this is "10 × 100 = 10 × 10 × 10 = 1000". Some other powers of ten also have special names:
- 1 – one
- 10 – ten
- 100 – one hundred
- 1,000 – one thousand
- 1,000,000 – one million
When dealing with larger numbers than this, there are two different ways of naming the numbers in English. Under the "long scale", a new name is given every time the number is a million times larger than the last named number. It is also called the "British Standard". This scale used to be common in Britain, but is not often used in English-speaking countries today. It is still used in some other European nations.
Another scale is the "short scale", under which a new name is given every time a number is a thousand times larger than the last named number. This scale is a lot more common in most English-speaking nations today.
- 1,000,000,000 – one billion (short scale), one milliard (long scale)
- 1,000,000,000,000 – one trillion (short scale), one billion (long scale)
- 1,000,000,000,000,000 – one quadrillion (short scale), one billiard (long scale)
No number before 1,000 contains the letter A.
### Natural numbers
**Natural numbers** are the numbers which we normally use for counting: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, etc. Some people say that 0 is a natural number, too. The set of all natural numbers is written as .
Another name for these numbers is positive numbers. These numbers are sometimes written as +1 to show that they are different from the negative numbers. But not all positive numbers are natural (for example, is positive, but not natural).
If 0 is called a natural number, then the natural numbers are the same as the whole numbers. If 0 is not called a natural number, then the natural numbers are the same as the counting numbers. So if the words "natural numbers" are not used, then there will be less confusion about whether zero is included or not. But unfortunately, some say that zero is not a whole number, while others say that whole numbers can be negative. "Positive integers" and "non-negative integers" are another way to include zero or exclude zero, but only if people know those words.
### Negative numbers
**Negative numbers** are numbers less than zero.
One way to think of negative numbers is to use a _number line_. We call one point on this line zero. Then we will label (write the name of) every position on the line by how far to the right of the zero point is. For example, the point one is one centimeter to the right, and the point two is two centimeters to the right.
However, the point one centimeter to the left of the zero point cannot be point one, since there is already a point called one. We therefore call this point minus one (−1, as it is one centimeter away but in the opposite direction).
A drawing of a number line is below.
All the normal operations of mathematics can be done with negative numbers:
- Adding a negative number to another is the same as taking away the positive number with the same numerals. For example, 5 + (−3) is the same as 5 − 3, and equals 2.
- Taking away a negative number from another is the same as adding the positive number with the same numerals. For example, 5 − (−3) is the same as 5 + 3, and equals 8.
- Multiplying two negative numbers together produces a positive number. For example, −5 times −3 is 15.
- Multiplying a negative number by a positive number, or multiply a positive number by a negative number, produces a negative result. For example, 5 times −3 is −15.
Since finding the square root of a negative number is impossible for real numbers (as negative times negative equals positive for real numbers), the square root of -1 is given a special name: _i_. This is also called the imaginary unit.
### Integers
**Integers** are all the natural numbers, all their opposites, and the number zero. Decimal numbers and fractions are not integers.
### Rational numbers
**Rational numbers** are numbers which can be written as fractions. This means that they can be written as _a_ divided by _b_, where the numbers _a_ and _b_ are integers, and _b_ is not zero.
Some rational numbers, such as 1/10, need a finite number of digits after the decimal point to write them in decimal form. The number one tenth is written in decimal form as 0.1. Numbers written with a finite decimal form are rational. Some rational numbers, such as 1/11, need an infinite number of digits after the decimal point to write them in decimal form. There is a repeating pattern to the digits following the decimal point. The number one eleventh is written in decimal form as 0.0909090909... .
A percentage could be called a rational number, because a percentage like 7% can be written as the fraction 7/100. It can also be written as the decimal 0.07. Sometimes, a ratio is considered as a rational number.
### Irrational numbers
**Irrational numbers** are numbers which cannot be written as a fraction, but do not have imaginary parts (explained later).
Irrational numbers often occur in geometry. For example, if we have a square which has sides of 1 meter, the distance between opposite corners is the square root of two, which equals 1.414213 ... . This is an irrational number. Mathematicians have proved that the square root of every natural number is either an integer or an irrational number.
One well-known irrational number is pi. This is the circumference (distance around) of a circle divided by its diameter (distance across). This number is the same for every circle. The number pi is approximately 3.1415926535 ... .
An irrational number cannot be fully written down in decimal form. It would have an infinite number of digits after the decimal point, and unlike 0.333333 ..., these digits would not repeat forever.
### Real numbers
**Real numbers** is a name for all the sets of numbers listed above:
- The rational numbers, including integers
- The irrational numbers
The real numbers form the real line. This is all the numbers that do not involve imaginary numbers.
### Imaginary numbers
**Imaginary numbers** are formed by real numbers multiplied by the number ***i***. This number is the square root of minus one (−1).
There is no number in the real numbers which when squared, makes the number −1. Therefore, mathematicians invented a number. They called this number **i**, or the **imaginary unit**.
Imaginary numbers operate under the same rules as real numbers:
- The sum of two imaginary numbers is found by pulling out (factoring out) the **i**. For example, 2**i** + 3**i** = (2 + 3)**i** = 5**i**.
- The difference of two imaginary numbers is found similarly. For example, 5**i** − 3**i** = (5 − 3)**i** = 2**i**.
- When multiplying two imaginary numbers, remember that **i** × **i** (i<sup>2</sup>) is −1. For example, 5**i** × 3**i** = ( 5 × 3 ) × ( **i** × **i** ) = 15 × (−1) = −15.
Imaginary numbers were called _imaginary_ because when they were first found, many mathematicians did not think they existed. The person who _discovered_ imaginary numbers was Gerolamo Cardano in the 1500s. The first to use the words _imaginary number_ was René Descartes. The first people to use these numbers were Leonard Euler and Carl Friedrich Gauss. Both lived in the 18th century.
### Complex numbers
**Complex numbers** are numbers which have two parts; a _real_ part and an _imaginary_ part. Every type of number written above is also a complex number.
Complex numbers are a more general form of numbers. The complex numbers can be drawn on a number plane. This is composed of a real number line, and an imaginary number line.
3i|_
|
|
2i|_ . 2+2i
|
|
i|_
|
|
|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|_____|
−2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
|
−i|_ .3−i
|
|
.−2−2i −2i|_
|
|
−3i|_
|
All of normal mathematics can be done with complex numbers:
- To add two complex numbers, add the real and imaginary parts separately. For example, (2 + 3**i**) + (3 + 2**i**) = (2 + 3) + (3 + 2)**i**= 5 + 5**i**.
- To subtract one complex number from another, subtract the real and imaginary parts separately. For example, (7 + 5**i**) − (3 + 3**i**) = (7 − 3) + (5 − 3)**i** = 4 + 2**i**.
To multiply two complex numbers is more complicated. It is easiest to describe in general terms, with two complex numbers a + b**i** and c + d**i**.
For example, (4 + 5**i**) × (3 + 2**i**) = (4 × 3 − 5 × 2) + (4 × 2 + 5 × 3)**i** = (12 − 10) + (8 + 15)**i** = 2 + 23**i**.
### Transcendental numbers
A real or complex number is called a _transcendental number_ if it can **not** be obtained as a result of an algebraic equation with integer coefficients.
Proving that a certain number is transcendental can be extremely difficult. Each transcendental number is also an irrational number. The first people to see that there were transcendental numbers were Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz and Leonhard Euler. The first to actually prove there were transcendental numbers was Joseph Liouville. He did this in 1844.
Some well-known transcendental numbers include:
- e
- π
- e<sup>a</sup> for algebraic a <samp>≠</samp> 0
## Related pages
- Real analysis
- Number theory
- Pure mathematics
- Names of numbers in English | high | false | false |
530 | November | **November** (Nov.) is the eleventh [month](3641) of the [year](944) in the [Gregorian calendar](12159), coming between [October](569) and [December](185). It has 30 [day](3539)s. Its name is from the [Latin](6592) word _novem_, which means "nine". It was the ninth month of the year before [January](400) and [February](262) were added to the [Roman Calendar](606601).
November always begins on the same day of the week as [March](468), and additionally, [February](262) in [common year](3974)s. November always ends on the same day of the week as [August](2).
## The Month
November is the eleventh [month](3641) of the year in the [Gregorian calendar](12159), after [October](569) and before [December](185), which is the last month. November has 30 days. It was the ninth month in the old [Roman calendar](606601), which is where its name comes from. It kept its name when [January](400) and [February](262) were added to the beginning of the year, despite becoming the eleventh [month](3641). The ninth month is now [September](684).
November begins on the same day of the week as [February](262) in [common year](3974)s and [March](468) every year, as each other's first days are exactly 39 weeks (273 days) and 35 weeks (245 days) apart respectively. November ends on the same day of the week as [August](2) every year, as each other's last days are exactly 13 [week](3935)s (91 [day](3539)s) apart.
In common years, November starts on the same day of the week as [June](401) of the previous year, and in [leap year](434)s, [September](684) and [December](185) of the previous year. In common years, November finishes on the same day of the week as [March](468) and June of the previous year, and in leap years, September of the previous year.
In years immediately before common years, November starts on the same day of the week as [August](2) of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, [May](469) of the following year. In years immediately before common years, November finishes on the same day of the week as May of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, [February](262) and [October](569) of the following year.
In the [Northern Hemisphere](6829), November is an [Autumn](18860) (Fall) [month](3641), and the further north in the hemisphere, the more likely it is to get colder as [December](185) approaches. In the [Southern Hemisphere](12161) it is a [Spring](16382) month. In each [hemisphere](31981), it is the [seasonal](6276) equivalent of [May](469) in the other.
Several observances around the beginning of the month are believed to be related, linked to the old [Celtic](49725) celebration of [Samhain](568934) on [November 1](8437). These events include [Halloween](7460) ([October 31](8341)), [Day of the Dead](562756) in [Mexico](1935) ([October 31](8341) to [November 2](9927)), All Saints Day ([November 1](8437)) and All Souls Day ([November 2](9927)).
In several mainly Christian countries, it is month in which people who died in [war](942) are commonly remembered, mainly related to the end of [World War I](219834) on [November 11](10081), [1918](9268). Near the end of the month [Advent](146054), the period leading up to [Christmas](3317), begins.
### Fixed Events
- [October 31](8341) to [November 2](9927) – Day of the Dead ([Mexico](1935))
- [October 31](8341)/[November 1](8437) – [Samhain](568934), Celtic and Pagan celebration.
- [November 1](8437) – All Saints Day ([Christian](170)); this is the day after [Halloween](7460).
- [November 1](8437) – Independence Day ([Antigua and Barbuda](6239))
- [November 1](8437) – World Vegan Day
- [November 1](8437) – Day of the Leaders of the [Bulgaria](15937)n National Revival.
- [November 1](8437) – Foundation Day ([Kerala](21555) and [Karnataka](10993), [India](391)).
- [November 2](9927) – All Souls Day ([Christian](170))
- [November 2](9927) – Statehood Day ([North Dakota](13437) and [South Dakota](13538), [US](720016))
- [November 3](9928) – Independence Day ([Panama](6431))
- [November 3](9928) – Independence Day ([Dominica](9214))
- [November 3](9928) – Independence Day ([Federated States of Micronesia](29886))
- [November 4](9929) – Flag Day ([Panama](6431))
- [November 4](9929) – National Unity and Armed Forces Day ([Italy](363))
- [November 4](9929) – Unity Day ([Russia](2964))
- [November 5](9926) – [Guy Fawkes](121906) Night ([United Kingdom](856), [Canada](219589), [New Zealand](5072))
- [November 6](9925) – [Constitution](173) Day ([Dominican Republic](15648))
- [November 9](9938) – Independence Day ([Cambodia](8493))
- [November 9](9938) – Schicksalstag ([Germany](219828)), several historical events in German history occurred on this date.
- [November 10](10079) – National Heroes Day ([Indonesia](3334))
- [November 10](10079) – [United States Marine Corps](31768) Birthday
- [November 10](10079) – [Atatürk](31913) Remembrance Day ([Turkey](2860))
- [November 11](10081) – [Remembrance Day](76267) (UK), or [Veterans Day](30839) ([US](720016)). At 11 am on 11 November 1918 the guns of the Western Front fell silent after more than four years of continuous warfare. The Allied nations chose this day and time for the commemoration of their war dead and continue to do so by marking a 1–2 minute silence at 11 am on November 11 each year. The time of the remembrance is also known as the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month.
- [November 11](10081) – [Christian](170) feast day of Saint Martin of Tours.
- [November 11](10081) – Independence Day ([Poland](3045))
- [November 11](10081) – Independence Day ([Angola](53))
- [November 14](10082) – Children's Day ([India](391))
- [November 14](10082) – World Diabetes Day
- [November 15](10094) – Republic Proclamation Day ([Brazil](104))
- [November 15](10094) – Independence Day (Palestine)
- [November 16](10095) – [Icelandic language](6786) Day
- [November 16](10095) – International Day of Tolerance.
- [November 16](10095) – Day of Declaration of Sovereignty ([Estonia](4096))
- [November 18](10097) – Independence Day ([Latvia](4098))
- [November 18](10097) – [Birthday](22419) of [Sultan](22214) Qaboos ([Oman](21602))
- [November 19](10098) – National Day of [Monaco](7963)
- [November 19](10098) – International [Men's](5504) Day
- [November 19](10098) – World [Toilet](34617) Day
- [November 19](10098) – Flag Day ([Brazil](104))
- [November 19](10098) – Liberation Day ([Mali](19308))
- [November 20](10089) – [Revolution](40652) Day ([Mexico](1935))
- [November 20](10089) – [Transgender](9958) Day of Remembrance ([United States](219587))
- [November 20](10089) – Day of National Sovereignty ([Argentina](54))
- [November 22](10087) – Independence Day ([Lebanon](7615))
- [November 22](10087) – Day of the [Albania](3461)n [Alphabet](5892)
- [November 23](10088) – [Saint George](5582)'s Day in [Georgia](14986).
- [November 24](10086) – Lachit Divas ([Assam](21561) in [India](391))
- [November 25](10084) – Independence Day ([Suriname](16545))
- [November 25](10084) – National Day of [Bosnia and Herzegovina](20289)
- [November 25](10084) – Christian feast day of Saint Catherine of Alexandria
- [November 27](10090) – Feast of Our Lady of the [Miraculous Medal](1005720)
- [November 28](10083) – Independence Day ([Albania](3461))
- [November 28](10083) – Independence Day ([Mauritania](19298))
- [November 28](10083) – Republic Day ([Burundi](9576) and [Chad](11542))
- [November 29](10091) – International Day of Solidarity with the [Palestinian](736038) People
- [November 29](10091) – Liberation Day ([Albania](3461))
- [November 29](10091) – Tubman Day ([Liberia](12333))
- [November 30](10092) – [Saint Andrew](5583)'s Day ([Scotland](3049))
- [November 30](10092) – Independence Day ([Barbados](11471))
- [November 30](10092) – Last day of the North Atlantic [Hurricane](19516) Season
### Moveable Events
- [Advent](146054), [Christian](170) lead-up to [Christmas](3317), begins on [Sunday](3837) closest to [November 30](10092), falling between [November 27](10090) and [December 3](9193).
- Divali ([Hinduism](5961)), celebrated in [October](569) or November
- Election Day ([United States](219587)), on Tuesday closest to [November 5](9926). Presidential Election is in [leap year](434)s. Mid-term elections are in even-numbered [common year](3974)s, such as [2010](14361). [Gubernatorial](13402) Elections and [Senate](48178) and [House of Representatives](46227) Elections are also held.
- First [Tuesday](5780) - [Melbourne](4740) Cup [horse](11275) race in [Australia](27)
- International Blobfish Day - Celebrated the 1st Sunday after the 2nd Thursday every November. This celebration was first posted on [social media (facebook) by its creator Eric S. Wilson on November 15, 2015](https://www.facebook.com/1059199969/posts/pfbid02cjb7XwQdwZbi3P2DFjkVWqS1Ai9jdWnt6cgqy7NwAtQPdu1AvqTV7aS2SxtQTUpil/?mibextid=cr9u03)
- Movember - Month-long observance highlighting [men's](5504) [health](325) issues.
- Volkstrauertag ([Germany](219828)), on [Sunday](3837) closest to [November 16](10095).
- The [United States](219587) celebrates [Thanksgiving](6493) holiday on the fourth [Thursday](5782) of November.
## Selection of Historical Events
- [November 1](8437), [1512](18819) – The ceiling of the [Sistine Chapel](27216), painted by [Michelangelo](4653), goes on display.
- [November 1](8437), [1755](20086) – An [earthquake](2081) and [tsunami](259144)s kills thousands of people in [Lisbon](4106), and affect other parts of [Europe](216) and North [Africa](1942).
- [November 1](8437), [1922](10008) – [Mehmed VI](414159), the last [Sultan](22214) of the [Ottoman Empire](16844), leaves the throne.
- [November 1](8437), [1981](5168) – [Antigua and Barbuda](6239) become independent from the [United Kingdom](856).
- [November 1](8437), [1993](3961) – The [European Union](2132) is officially created.
- [November 2](9927), [1889](16034) – [North](13437) and [South Dakota](13538) become the 39th and 40th [State](798)s of the [US](720016).
- [November 2](9927), [1963](8718) – [South Vietnam](22707)ese leader [Ngo Dinh Diem](43578) is [executed](257).
- [November 3](9928), [1903](8065) – [Panama](6431) becomes independent, separating from [Colombia](6351).
- [November 3](9928), [1957](9559) – The [Soviet Union](3600) sends the [dog](3632) [Laika](207552) into [space](2899). She does not survive.
- [November 3](9928), [1978](2998) – [Dominica](9214) becomes independent from the [United Kingdom](856).
- [November 3](9928), [1986](9266) – The [Federated States of Micronesia](29886) become independent from the [United States](219587).
- [November 4](9929), [1922](10008) – [Howard Carter](44823) discovers the entrance to [Tutankhamun](6419)'s tomb.
- [November 4](9929), [1956](8427) – The [Hungarian](3462) [Revolution](40652) is crushed by the [Soviet Union](3600).
- [November 4](9929), [1995](3959) – [Prime Minister](3598) of [Israel](64543) [Yitzhak Rabin](20821) is shot dead by [Yigal Amir](573121).
- [November 4](9929), [2008](183009) – [Barack Obama](223430) is elected the 44th, and first African American, [President of the United States](7174).
- [November 5](9926), [1605](11548) – The [Gunpowder Plot](20365) to blow up the [Parliament](4075) in [London](460) fails, and [Guy Fawkes](121906) and fellow conspirators are arrested.
- [November 6](9925), [1834](8389) – The first [Constitution](173) of the [Dominican Republic](15648) is adopted.
- [November 6](9925), [1860](16051) – [Abraham Lincoln](5414) is elected [President of the United States](7174).
- [November 7](9924), [1917](11700) – In [Russia](2964), the [October](569) [Revolution](40652) begins.
- [November 7](9924), [2000](4022) – The [US](720016) [President](4044)ial election between [Al Gore](17083) and [George W. Bush](4109) ends in dispute. Bush is declared the winner over a month later.
- [November 8](9937), [1923](9217) – The [Munich](2917) [Beer Hall Putsch](19949) occurs, in [Adolf Hitler](4457)'s first attempt at power.
- [November 8](9937), [1960](8426) – [John F. Kennedy](8310) is elected [President of the United States](7174).
- [November 9](9938), [1953](7455) – [Cambodia](8493) becomes independent.
- [November 9](9938) – Significant Events in [German](219828) history, including:
- [1918](9268) – The [Weimar Republic](29629) is declared.
- [1923](9217) – The [Munich](2917) [Beer Hall Putsch](19949) is ended.
- [1938](9042) – Holocaust: [Kristallnacht](39827), during which [Jewish](219593) [synagogue](815)s and businesses were destroyed.
- [1989](3967) – The [Berlin Wall](22117) falls, in a significant event towards the end of the [Cold War](1949).
- [November 10](10079), [1989](3967) – [Todor Zhivkov](553871) is brought from power in [Bulgaria](15937).
- [November 11](10081), [1918](9268) – [World War I](219834) comes to an end.
- [November 11](10081), [1975](7794) – [Angola](53) becomes independent from [Portugal](3466).
- [November 12](8727), [1918](9268) – [Austria](55) becomes a [Republic](4978).
- [November 13](8712), [1970](4941) – A [cyclone](65766) in present-day [Bangladesh](15790) kills around 500,000 people.
- [November 13](8712), [1985](9265) – The [Nevado del Ruiz](134001) [volcano](4483) erupts in [Colombia](6351), burying several towns under [mud](34449)slides.
- [November 13](8712), [2010](14361) – Burmese pro-[Democracy](3195) leader [Aung San Suu Kyi](108253) is released from house arrest.
- [November 14](10082), [1963](8718) – The [island](367) of [Surtsey](861934) is formed by a [volcanic](4483) eruption to the south of [Iceland](2979).
- [November 15](10094), [1889](16034) – Emperor [Pedro II of Brazil](209594) is overthrown and [Deodoro da Fonseca](209322) declares [Brazil](104) a [Republic](4978).
- [November 16](10095), [1945](4629) – [UNESCO](13920) is founded.
- [November 17](10096), [1869](4584) – The [Suez Canal](4705), connecting the [Mediterranean Sea](7621) and the [Red Sea](19072), is [inaugurated](140252).
- [November 18](10097), [1918](9268) – [Latvia](4098) declares independence from [Russia](2964)
- [November 19](10098), [1969](2984) – [Brazil](104)ian [footballer](46299) Pele scores the 1,000th goal of his career.
- [November 20](10089), [1945](4629) – The [Nuremberg Trials](83597) of leading Nazi war criminals begin.
- [November 20](10089), [1975](7794) – [Francisco Franco](15526) dies in [Spain](219832).
- [November 22](10087), [1943](8861) – [Lebanon](7615) becomes independent from [France](291).
- [November 22](10087), [1963](8718) – [US](720016) [President](4044) [John F. Kennedy](8310) is shot dead in [Dallas](21230), [Texas](5324). [Lyndon B. Johnson](10747) succeeds him.
- [November 22](10087), [2005](3964) – [Angela Merkel](10405) becomes the first female [Chancellor of Germany](17436).
- [November 23](10088), [1963](8718) – British [television](1999) programme Dr. Who is shown for the first time.
- [November 24](10086), [1859](10902) – [Charles Darwin](5121)'s _The Origin of the Species_ is published for the first time.
- [November 24](10086), [1963](8718) – [Lee Harvey Oswald](256773) is shot dead by [Jack Ruby](365628).
- [November 24](10086), [1991](3963) – [Freddie Mercury](15892) dies, one day after announcing that he had [AIDS](36802).
- [November 25](10084), [1975](7794) – [Suriname](16545) becomes independent from the [Netherlands](3463).
- [November 26](10093), [1922](10008) – The tomb of [Tutankhamun](6419) is entered.
- [November 26](10093), [2008](183009) – The 26 November 2008 Mumbai attacks begin, as terrorists strike several locations in [Mumbai](5114), [India](391), lasting until [November 29](10091).
- [November 28](10083), [1520](21170) – The first [navigation](24154) of the Magellan Strait, to the south of mainland [South America](1989), is completed by [Ferdinand Magellan](6564) and his crew.
- [November 28](10083), [1821](11186) – [Panama](6431) unites with Greater [Colombia](6351).
- [November 28](10083), [1912](9821) – [Albania](3461) declares independence from the [Ottoman Empire](16844).
- [November 28](10083), [1960](8426) – [Mauritania](19298) becomes independent from [France](291).
- [November 30](10092), [1872](7735) – The first international football match is held between [Scotland](3049) and [England](3047) at Hamilton Crescent in [Glasgow](7282), ending 0-0.
- [November 30](10092), [1966](9560) – [Barbados](11471) becomes independent from the [United Kingdom](856).
## Trivia
- November's [flower](7947) is the [Chrysanthemum](69145). Its birthstone is the [topaz](64530).
- The [astrological](29179) signs for November are [Scorpio](647409) ([October 22](10074) to [November 21](10085)) and [Sagittarius](72098) ([November 22](10087) to [December 21](10106)): In the [English language](2843), November is the only month of the year whose two astrological signs begin with the same letter (they both start with an "S").
- [November 1](8437) is the only day in November during a [common year](3974) to start within the fifth sixth of the [calendar](7517) year.
- This month is tied with [October](569) as the months with the most births of [US Presidents](7174) as of January 20, 2021: with six - [James Knox Polk](17081), [Warren G. Harding](15786) (both on [November 2](9927)), [James Garfield](11644) ([November 19](10098)), [Joe Biden](85536) ([November 20](10089)), [Franklin Pierce](16842) ([November 23](10088)) and [Zachary Taylor](11561) ([November 24](10086)).
- November is also the only month of the year to be one of 26 letters in the [NATO](47538) alphabet. | **November** (Nov.) is the eleventh month of the year in the Gregorian calendar, coming between October and December. It has 30 days. Its name is from the Latin word _novem_, which means "nine". It was the ninth month of the year before January and February were added to the Roman Calendar.
November always begins on the same day of the week as March, and additionally, February in common years. November always ends on the same day of the week as August.
## The Month
November is the eleventh month of the year in the Gregorian calendar, after October and before December, which is the last month. November has 30 days. It was the ninth month in the old Roman calendar, which is where its name comes from. It kept its name when January and February were added to the beginning of the year, despite becoming the eleventh month. The ninth month is now September.
November begins on the same day of the week as February in common years and March every year, as each other's first days are exactly 39 weeks (273 days) and 35 weeks (245 days) apart respectively. November ends on the same day of the week as August every year, as each other's last days are exactly 13 weeks (91 days) apart.
In common years, November starts on the same day of the week as June of the previous year, and in leap years, September and December of the previous year. In common years, November finishes on the same day of the week as March and June of the previous year, and in leap years, September of the previous year.
In years immediately before common years, November starts on the same day of the week as August of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, May of the following year. In years immediately before common years, November finishes on the same day of the week as May of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, February and October of the following year.
In the Northern Hemisphere, November is an Autumn (Fall) month, and the further north in the hemisphere, the more likely it is to get colder as December approaches. In the Southern Hemisphere it is a Spring month. In each hemisphere, it is the seasonal equivalent of May in the other.
Several observances around the beginning of the month are believed to be related, linked to the old Celtic celebration of Samhain on November 1. These events include Halloween (October 31), Day of the Dead in Mexico (October 31 to November 2), All Saints Day (November 1) and All Souls Day (November 2).
In several mainly Christian countries, it is month in which people who died in war are commonly remembered, mainly related to the end of World War I on November 11, 1918. Near the end of the month Advent, the period leading up to Christmas, begins.
### Fixed Events
- October 31 to November 2 – Day of the Dead (Mexico)
- October 31/November 1 – Samhain, Celtic and Pagan celebration.
- November 1 – All Saints Day (Christian); this is the day after Halloween.
- November 1 – Independence Day (Antigua and Barbuda)
- November 1 – World Vegan Day
- November 1 – Day of the Leaders of the Bulgarian National Revival.
- November 1 – Foundation Day (Kerala and Karnataka, India).
- November 2 – All Souls Day (Christian)
- November 2 – Statehood Day (North Dakota and South Dakota, US)
- November 3 – Independence Day (Panama)
- November 3 – Independence Day (Dominica)
- November 3 – Independence Day (Federated States of Micronesia)
- November 4 – Flag Day (Panama)
- November 4 – National Unity and Armed Forces Day (Italy)
- November 4 – Unity Day (Russia)
- November 5 – Guy Fawkes Night (United Kingdom, Canada, New Zealand)
- November 6 – Constitution Day (Dominican Republic)
- November 9 – Independence Day (Cambodia)
- November 9 – Schicksalstag (Germany), several historical events in German history occurred on this date.
- November 10 – National Heroes Day (Indonesia)
- November 10 – United States Marine Corps Birthday
- November 10 – Atatürk Remembrance Day (Turkey)
- November 11 – Remembrance Day (UK), or Veterans Day (US). At 11 am on 11 November 1918 the guns of the Western Front fell silent after more than four years of continuous warfare. The Allied nations chose this day and time for the commemoration of their war dead and continue to do so by marking a 1–2 minute silence at 11 am on November 11 each year. The time of the remembrance is also known as the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month.
- November 11 – Christian feast day of Saint Martin of Tours.
- November 11 – Independence Day (Poland)
- November 11 – Independence Day (Angola)
- November 14 – Children's Day (India)
- November 14 – World Diabetes Day
- November 15 – Republic Proclamation Day (Brazil)
- November 15 – Independence Day (Palestine)
- November 16 – Icelandic language Day
- November 16 – International Day of Tolerance.
- November 16 – Day of Declaration of Sovereignty (Estonia)
- November 18 – Independence Day (Latvia)
- November 18 – Birthday of Sultan Qaboos (Oman)
- November 19 – National Day of Monaco
- November 19 – International Men's Day
- November 19 – World Toilet Day
- November 19 – Flag Day (Brazil)
- November 19 – Liberation Day (Mali)
- November 20 – Revolution Day (Mexico)
- November 20 – Transgender Day of Remembrance (United States)
- November 20 – Day of National Sovereignty (Argentina)
- November 22 – Independence Day (Lebanon)
- November 22 – Day of the Albanian Alphabet
- November 23 – Saint George's Day in Georgia.
- November 24 – Lachit Divas (Assam in India)
- November 25 – Independence Day (Suriname)
- November 25 – National Day of Bosnia and Herzegovina
- November 25 – Christian feast day of Saint Catherine of Alexandria
- November 27 – Feast of Our Lady of the Miraculous Medal
- November 28 – Independence Day (Albania)
- November 28 – Independence Day (Mauritania)
- November 28 – Republic Day (Burundi and Chad)
- November 29 – International Day of Solidarity with the Palestinian People
- November 29 – Liberation Day (Albania)
- November 29 – Tubman Day (Liberia)
- November 30 – Saint Andrew's Day (Scotland)
- November 30 – Independence Day (Barbados)
- November 30 – Last day of the North Atlantic Hurricane Season
### Moveable Events
- Advent, Christian lead-up to Christmas, begins on Sunday closest to November 30, falling between November 27 and December 3.
- Divali (Hinduism), celebrated in October or November
- Election Day (United States), on Tuesday closest to November 5. Presidential Election is in leap years. Mid-term elections are in even-numbered common years, such as 2010. Gubernatorial Elections and Senate and House of Representatives Elections are also held.
- First Tuesday - Melbourne Cup horse race in Australia
- International Blobfish Day - Celebrated the 1st Sunday after the 2nd Thursday every November. This celebration was first posted on social media (facebook) by its creator Eric S. Wilson on November 15, 2015
- Movember - Month-long observance highlighting men's health issues.
- Volkstrauertag (Germany), on Sunday closest to November 16.
- The United States celebrates Thanksgiving holiday on the fourth Thursday of November.
## Selection of Historical Events
- November 1, 1512 – The ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, painted by Michelangelo, goes on display.
- November 1, 1755 – An earthquake and tsunamis kills thousands of people in Lisbon, and affect other parts of Europe and North Africa.
- November 1, 1922 – Mehmed VI, the last Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, leaves the throne.
- November 1, 1981 – Antigua and Barbuda become independent from the United Kingdom.
- November 1, 1993 – The European Union is officially created.
- November 2, 1889 – North and South Dakota become the 39th and 40th States of the US.
- November 2, 1963 – South Vietnamese leader Ngo Dinh Diem is executed.
- November 3, 1903 – Panama becomes independent, separating from Colombia.
- November 3, 1957 – The Soviet Union sends the dog Laika into space. She does not survive.
- November 3, 1978 – Dominica becomes independent from the United Kingdom.
- November 3, 1986 – The Federated States of Micronesia become independent from the United States.
- November 4, 1922 – Howard Carter discovers the entrance to Tutankhamun's tomb.
- November 4, 1956 – The Hungarian Revolution is crushed by the Soviet Union.
- November 4, 1995 – Prime Minister of Israel Yitzhak Rabin is shot dead by Yigal Amir.
- November 4, 2008 – Barack Obama is elected the 44th, and first African American, President of the United States.
- November 5, 1605 – The Gunpowder Plot to blow up the Parliament in London fails, and Guy Fawkes and fellow conspirators are arrested.
- November 6, 1834 – The first Constitution of the Dominican Republic is adopted.
- November 6, 1860 – Abraham Lincoln is elected President of the United States.
- November 7, 1917 – In Russia, the October Revolution begins.
- November 7, 2000 – The US Presidential election between Al Gore and George W. Bush ends in dispute. Bush is declared the winner over a month later.
- November 8, 1923 – The Munich Beer Hall Putsch occurs, in Adolf Hitler's first attempt at power.
- November 8, 1960 – John F. Kennedy is elected President of the United States.
- November 9, 1953 – Cambodia becomes independent.
- November 9 – Significant Events in German history, including:
- 1918 – The Weimar Republic is declared.
- 1923 – The Munich Beer Hall Putsch is ended.
- 1938 – Holocaust: Kristallnacht, during which Jewish synagogues and businesses were destroyed.
- 1989 – The Berlin Wall falls, in a significant event towards the end of the Cold War.
- November 10, 1989 – Todor Zhivkov is brought from power in Bulgaria.
- November 11, 1918 – World War I comes to an end.
- November 11, 1975 – Angola becomes independent from Portugal.
- November 12, 1918 – Austria becomes a Republic.
- November 13, 1970 – A cyclone in present-day Bangladesh kills around 500,000 people.
- November 13, 1985 – The Nevado del Ruiz volcano erupts in Colombia, burying several towns under mudslides.
- November 13, 2010 – Burmese pro-Democracy leader Aung San Suu Kyi is released from house arrest.
- November 14, 1963 – The island of Surtsey is formed by a volcanic eruption to the south of Iceland.
- November 15, 1889 – Emperor Pedro II of Brazil is overthrown and Deodoro da Fonseca declares Brazil a Republic.
- November 16, 1945 – UNESCO is founded.
- November 17, 1869 – The Suez Canal, connecting the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea, is inaugurated.
- November 18, 1918 – Latvia declares independence from Russia
- November 19, 1969 – Brazilian footballer Pele scores the 1,000th goal of his career.
- November 20, 1945 – The Nuremberg Trials of leading Nazi war criminals begin.
- November 20, 1975 – Francisco Franco dies in Spain.
- November 22, 1943 – Lebanon becomes independent from France.
- November 22, 1963 – US President John F. Kennedy is shot dead in Dallas, Texas. Lyndon B. Johnson succeeds him.
- November 22, 2005 – Angela Merkel becomes the first female Chancellor of Germany.
- November 23, 1963 – British television programme Dr. Who is shown for the first time.
- November 24, 1859 – Charles Darwin's _The Origin of the Species_ is published for the first time.
- November 24, 1963 – Lee Harvey Oswald is shot dead by Jack Ruby.
- November 24, 1991 – Freddie Mercury dies, one day after announcing that he had AIDS.
- November 25, 1975 – Suriname becomes independent from the Netherlands.
- November 26, 1922 – The tomb of Tutankhamun is entered.
- November 26, 2008 – The 26 November 2008 Mumbai attacks begin, as terrorists strike several locations in Mumbai, India, lasting until November 29.
- November 28, 1520 – The first navigation of the Magellan Strait, to the south of mainland South America, is completed by Ferdinand Magellan and his crew.
- November 28, 1821 – Panama unites with Greater Colombia.
- November 28, 1912 – Albania declares independence from the Ottoman Empire.
- November 28, 1960 – Mauritania becomes independent from France.
- November 30, 1872 – The first international football match is held between Scotland and England at Hamilton Crescent in Glasgow, ending 0-0.
- November 30, 1966 – Barbados becomes independent from the United Kingdom.
## Trivia
- November's flower is the Chrysanthemum. Its birthstone is the topaz.
- The astrological signs for November are Scorpio (October 22 to November 21) and Sagittarius (November 22 to December 21): In the English language, November is the only month of the year whose two astrological signs begin with the same letter (they both start with an "S").
- November 1 is the only day in November during a common year to start within the fifth sixth of the calendar year.
- This month is tied with October as the months with the most births of US Presidents as of January 20, 2021: with six - James Knox Polk, Warren G. Harding (both on November 2), James Garfield (November 19), Joe Biden (November 20), Franklin Pierce (November 23) and Zachary Taylor (November 24).
- November is also the only month of the year to be one of 26 letters in the NATO alphabet. | high | false | false |
533 | National anthem | A **national anthem** is a country's national [song](9460); the people of a nation sing their national anthem to remember and respect their [country](121). By the 18th century, most countries had a national anthem and new countries chose a national anthem when they became independent. Some monarchies have a royal anthem for their monarch.
## Related pages
- [List of national anthems](14807)
- National flag
- [National symbols](34404) | A **national anthem** is a country's national song; the people of a nation sing their national anthem to remember and respect their country. By the 18th century, most countries had a national anthem and new countries chose a national anthem when they became independent. Some monarchies have a royal anthem for their monarch.
## Related pages
- List of national anthems
- National flag
- National symbols | high | false | false |
534 | Name | A **name** is a [word](911) (or a set of words) given to things and people.
For example, _cat_ is the name of a kind of animal. "Aarav" , "Adhrit" are names of a person, usually a male. "Ananya" is a common female name.
The word 'name' can also be used as a [verb](893). To name something is to give it a name.
## People's names
In many [culture](3476)s, there are rules and customs about how to give a person a name.
Some of the rules are defined by [law](426)s, and others are defined by traditions (doing things in the way they have been done for a long time).
There are rules about different of the names and naming, including the following:
**1. Number of parts of a name**
In some cultures, a person has a one-part name, such as "Muhammad."
In other cultures, a person has a two-part name, such as "John Smith."
In some cultures, a person can have any number of name parts. In the [United States](219587), for example, some people have three: first name, middle name, and last name. Other people have only two: a first and last name.
In Chinese cultures, it is typical for a person to have three-part name, such as "Cheah Ching San," where "Cheah" is the surname. Written in English format a comma is introduced making it "Ching San, Cheah."
In Muslim and Arabic culture, a name can have one to six parts. Such as "Abdullah ibn Muhammad Al ash-Sheikh".
**2. Relations with names of parents and other relatives**
In some cultures, people have the same "[family name](29123)" (or surname) as their parents. For example, the father of John Smith may be Mike Smith. And Mike Smith's father may be James Smith. The "Smith" part is the same for all the family.
In other cultures, a person has the same name as his or her father, but the name is in a different place. For example, Shafiq Hanif's son may be Hanif Kamal. Hanif is in both the father's and son's name.
**3. Name changes**
In some cultures, a name changes when people marry, divorce, go through some religious ceremony, etc. For example, in some [Spanish](6432)-speaking countries, people use two last names: their mother's father's name and their father's name. If Elena Rodriguez Gomez and Jose Sanchez Soria marry, she may change her name to Elena Rodriguez de Sanchez, and their child could be named Pilar Sanchez Rodriguez, taking the names of both of her grandfathers.
**4. Name origins**
In some cultures, personal names come from history. In most [Europe](216)an countries, some first names are taken from the Quran or [Bible](2866). In some cultures, names are taken from a relative. In other cultures, a name shows what the parents hope their child will be like. A baby may be given a name Wisdom because parents hope the baby will be a wise girl or boy.
Some cultures avoid giving people a name of an animal. For example, there is no name like dog, cat, snake, owl, or fish in Japanese people's first names. But in some cultures animal names may be good.
**5. Lengths, pronunciations, spelling, etc.**
In some languages and cultures, you can tell if a word is a person's name or not by just looking at the spelling or listening to its pronunciation. There are some other linguistic patterns. For example, many Chinese names are made up of three syllables.
**6. Use of names, titles, nicknames, etc.**
In some cultures, people use names when they call each other. In other cultures, people use their nicknames. In some other cultures, people use their titles ("father," "professor," etc.) when they call each other.
**7. Spelling of names, titles, nicknames, etc.**
**8. Name awareness
Taking note of names is taken a step farther by those who elect to celebrate a name (e.g., "Celebrate Your Name Week") whether their own name, someone else's name, or names in general, complete ownership of one's name might very well include celebrating it.
**9. Middle names
While some people might choose to "hide" a middle name for any number of reasons (i.e., they consider the middle name they were given to be an "embarrassment"), others have taken to celebrating their middle name (e.g., "Middle Name Pride Day").
In the [English language](2843), names exclusively are usually pronounced in correlation with the spelling, however can be pronounced as desired, e.g. John is (jon) but can also be (ned). However, not probable, is held true in the English rules of grammar.
**Examples of names**
Sarah, Lucy, Ellen, Claire, Ben.
Names can be shortened e.g. Isabelle can become Izzy or Belle.
## Japanese names
Here are some things that are often found in [Japan](403)ese names today. In the past, people went by different rules.
**1. Number of parts of a name**
Japanese names have two parts. One is the family name and the other is the [given name](29122).
"[Suzuki Ichiro](208965)" is a name of a Japanese person. Suzuki is the family name, and Ichiro is the first name. In the [Japanese language](3937), the family name comes first, and the given name comes second. (It is like writing Smith John, instead of John Smith.)
Only some members of the royal family do not have a family name.
**2. Relations with names of parents and other relatives**
A newborn baby gets a family name from their parents. The parents have the same family name. So, a son of Ono Yoko (female) and Ono Ken (male) is Ono something.
The family name Ono is mostly shared by the paternal (male) part of the family. So Ono Ken's parents have the family name Ono, but Ono Yoko's parents probably do not.
**3. Name changes**
Names of people change when they marry and divorce. It is a [custom](5110) in many parts of the world that women change their family name to that of their new husband when they marry. However, in Europe and North America especially, many women no longer do this even though their mothers and grandmothers may have. Sometimes, the man will take the woman's family name.
**4. Name origins**
**5. Lengths, pronunciations, spelling, etc. **
**6. Use of names, titles, nicknames, etc. **
## Related pages
- [Noun](543)
- [Synonym](6208) | A **name** is a word (or a set of words) given to things and people.
For example, _cat_ is the name of a kind of animal. "Aarav" , "Adhrit" are names of a person, usually a male. "Ananya" is a common female name.
The word 'name' can also be used as a verb. To name something is to give it a name.
## People's names
In many cultures, there are rules and customs about how to give a person a name.
Some of the rules are defined by laws, and others are defined by traditions (doing things in the way they have been done for a long time).
There are rules about different of the names and naming, including the following:
**1. Number of parts of a name**
In some cultures, a person has a one-part name, such as "Muhammad."
In other cultures, a person has a two-part name, such as "John Smith."
In some cultures, a person can have any number of name parts. In the United States, for example, some people have three: first name, middle name, and last name. Other people have only two: a first and last name.
In Chinese cultures, it is typical for a person to have three-part name, such as "Cheah Ching San," where "Cheah" is the surname. Written in English format a comma is introduced making it "Ching San, Cheah."
In Muslim and Arabic culture, a name can have one to six parts. Such as "Abdullah ibn Muhammad Al ash-Sheikh".
**2. Relations with names of parents and other relatives**
In some cultures, people have the same "family name" (or surname) as their parents. For example, the father of John Smith may be Mike Smith. And Mike Smith's father may be James Smith. The "Smith" part is the same for all the family.
In other cultures, a person has the same name as his or her father, but the name is in a different place. For example, Shafiq Hanif's son may be Hanif Kamal. Hanif is in both the father's and son's name.
**3. Name changes**
In some cultures, a name changes when people marry, divorce, go through some religious ceremony, etc. For example, in some Spanish-speaking countries, people use two last names: their mother's father's name and their father's name. If Elena Rodriguez Gomez and Jose Sanchez Soria marry, she may change her name to Elena Rodriguez de Sanchez, and their child could be named Pilar Sanchez Rodriguez, taking the names of both of her grandfathers.
**4. Name origins**
In some cultures, personal names come from history. In most European countries, some first names are taken from the Quran or Bible. In some cultures, names are taken from a relative. In other cultures, a name shows what the parents hope their child will be like. A baby may be given a name Wisdom because parents hope the baby will be a wise girl or boy.
Some cultures avoid giving people a name of an animal. For example, there is no name like dog, cat, snake, owl, or fish in Japanese people's first names. But in some cultures animal names may be good.
**5. Lengths, pronunciations, spelling, etc.**
In some languages and cultures, you can tell if a word is a person's name or not by just looking at the spelling or listening to its pronunciation. There are some other linguistic patterns. For example, many Chinese names are made up of three syllables.
**6. Use of names, titles, nicknames, etc.**
In some cultures, people use names when they call each other. In other cultures, people use their nicknames. In some other cultures, people use their titles ("father," "professor," etc.) when they call each other.
**7. Spelling of names, titles, nicknames, etc.**
**8. Name awareness
Taking note of names is taken a step farther by those who elect to celebrate a name (e.g., "Celebrate Your Name Week") whether their own name, someone else's name, or names in general, complete ownership of one's name might very well include celebrating it.
**9. Middle names
While some people might choose to "hide" a middle name for any number of reasons (i.e., they consider the middle name they were given to be an "embarrassment"), others have taken to celebrating their middle name (e.g., "Middle Name Pride Day").
In the English language, names exclusively are usually pronounced in correlation with the spelling, however can be pronounced as desired, e.g. John is (jon) but can also be (ned). However, not probable, is held true in the English rules of grammar.
**Examples of names**
Sarah, Lucy, Ellen, Claire, Ben.
Names can be shortened e.g. Isabelle can become Izzy or Belle.
## Japanese names
Here are some things that are often found in Japanese names today. In the past, people went by different rules.
**1. Number of parts of a name**
Japanese names have two parts. One is the family name and the other is the given name.
"Suzuki Ichiro" is a name of a Japanese person. Suzuki is the family name, and Ichiro is the first name. In the Japanese language, the family name comes first, and the given name comes second. (It is like writing Smith John, instead of John Smith.)
Only some members of the royal family do not have a family name.
**2. Relations with names of parents and other relatives**
A newborn baby gets a family name from their parents. The parents have the same family name. So, a son of Ono Yoko (female) and Ono Ken (male) is Ono something.
The family name Ono is mostly shared by the paternal (male) part of the family. So Ono Ken's parents have the family name Ono, but Ono Yoko's parents probably do not.
**3. Name changes**
Names of people change when they marry and divorce. It is a custom in many parts of the world that women change their family name to that of their new husband when they marry. However, in Europe and North America especially, many women no longer do this even though their mothers and grandmothers may have. Sometimes, the man will take the woman's family name.
**4. Name origins**
**5. Lengths, pronunciations, spelling, etc. **
**6. Use of names, titles, nicknames, etc. **
## Related pages
- Noun
- Synonym | medium | false | false |
535 | Niihau | **Niihau** (or **Niʻihau**) is the smallest of the inhabited [island](367)s of [Hawaii](332), in the [United States](219587). It has a land area of 70 sq. miles (184 km<sup>2</sup>). It is the oldest of the eight main [islands](3797).
## Ownership
The whole island is owned by the Robinson family. They bought it from the Kingdom of Hawaii for $10,000. It was said that the buyer, Elizabeth Sinclair (later Sinclair-Robinson), liked the island better than other places such as [Waikiki](291728), Pearl Harbor, and the island of [Lanai](433). There is a small [US Navy](21540) [base](646127) where a few Navy people work.
## Inhabitants
The island has fewer than a hundred permanent inhabitants. Almost all of them are [native](64843) [Hawaiians](795195). They support themselves largely with small family farms. Many work for the [ranch](679) owned by the Robinsons. The native Hawaiians lead a rural, low-tech life. They speak the Hawaiian language and keep traditions alive. This is because Ms. Sinclair promised to help preserve Hawaiian culture and tradition when she bought the island. Niihau is the only one of the Hawaiian islands where the [Hawaiian language](15039) is the main language.
## Tourism
Niihau is also known as the "Forbidden Island". This is due to the fact that until recently, the island was off-limits to all but family members, US Navy personnel, [government](312) [official](53847)s and expressly invited guests. Now, tourists can go on one of a limited number of supervised tours or [hunting](33836) safaris.
## Beaches
On the beaches of the island are found shells which are the only shells to be classified as gems. Niihau shells and the jewelry made from them are very popular. Many, especially those with darker and richer color, are collectors items. The [sale](110529) of shells and shell jewelry brings extra [money](479) for the local people. | **Niihau** (or **Niʻihau**) is the smallest of the inhabited islands of Hawaii, in the United States. It has a land area of 70 sq. miles (184 km<sup>2</sup>). It is the oldest of the eight main islands.
## Ownership
The whole island is owned by the Robinson family. They bought it from the Kingdom of Hawaii for $10,000. It was said that the buyer, Elizabeth Sinclair (later Sinclair-Robinson), liked the island better than other places such as Waikiki, Pearl Harbor, and the island of Lanai. There is a small US Navy base where a few Navy people work.
## Inhabitants
The island has fewer than a hundred permanent inhabitants. Almost all of them are native Hawaiians. They support themselves largely with small family farms. Many work for the ranch owned by the Robinsons. The native Hawaiians lead a rural, low-tech life. They speak the Hawaiian language and keep traditions alive. This is because Ms. Sinclair promised to help preserve Hawaiian culture and tradition when she bought the island. Niihau is the only one of the Hawaiian islands where the Hawaiian language is the main language.
## Tourism
Niihau is also known as the "Forbidden Island". This is due to the fact that until recently, the island was off-limits to all but family members, US Navy personnel, government officials and expressly invited guests. Now, tourists can go on one of a limited number of supervised tours or hunting safaris.
## Beaches
On the beaches of the island are found shells which are the only shells to be classified as gems. Niihau shells and the jewelry made from them are very popular. Many, especially those with darker and richer color, are collectors items. The sale of shells and shell jewelry brings extra money for the local people. | medium | false | false |
536 | Nēnē | The **Nēnē**, or **Hawaiian goose** (_Branta sandvicensis_) is a [species](19654) of [goose](21963). It is found today on only three [Hawaiian islands](3797). It gets its name from its soft call.
This is an unmistakable species, with its generally brown plumage (feathers) and darker head. Its strong toes have much reduced webbing (skin between the toes), an adjustment to the [lava](25307) flows on which it breeds. The Nēnē goes about on land much more than other water birds. When moulting (dropping old feathers and growing new ones), the Nēnē cannot fly, as do other geese, a factor which made it vulnerable to hunting.
The Nēnē was once among the most threatened [waterfowl](180385) [species](19654) around the world. Once common hunting and predators brought to the islands such as [mongoose](70348)s, [pig](14167)s and [cat](2815)s reduced the population to only 30 birds in the 1950s. However, this species breeds well in captivity (zoos and bird parks), and has been successfully re-introduced. There are also good numbers in wild bird collections.
The Nēnē is the state bird of [Hawaii](332). | The **Nēnē**, or **Hawaiian goose** (_Branta sandvicensis_) is a species of goose. It is found today on only three Hawaiian islands. It gets its name from its soft call.
This is an unmistakable species, with its generally brown plumage (feathers) and darker head. Its strong toes have much reduced webbing (skin between the toes), an adjustment to the lava flows on which it breeds. The Nēnē goes about on land much more than other water birds. When moulting (dropping old feathers and growing new ones), the Nēnē cannot fly, as do other geese, a factor which made it vulnerable to hunting.
The Nēnē was once among the most threatened waterfowl species around the world. Once common hunting and predators brought to the islands such as mongooses, pigs and cats reduced the population to only 30 birds in the 1950s. However, this species breeds well in captivity (zoos and bird parks), and has been successfully re-introduced. There are also good numbers in wild bird collections.
The Nēnē is the state bird of Hawaii. | medium | false | false |
537 | Network | **Network** might refer to:
- [Computer network](316702)
- [Virtual private network](99745)
- [Career networking](https://web.archive.org/web/20250701183851/https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Career_networking)
- [Neural network](571403)
- [Social network](5431)
- [Television network](39860)
- [Transport network](191995)
## Related pages
- [Contact network](131), a disambiguation page | **Network** might refer to:
- Computer network
- Virtual private network
- Career networking
- Neural network
- Social network
- Television network
- Transport network
## Related pages
- Contact network, a disambiguation page | medium | false | false |
539 | Fishing net | A **fishing net** is a [woven](69347) trap usually used to catch [fish](285). They are usually made out of [rope](19137). A net is a kind of [tool](158772).
**Fishing nets** are one of the oldest ways of catching fish. They can be made with all kinds of fabric like [nylon](57431), cotton, grass, [flax](66827), and tree fibers. The oldest known fish nets dates back to 8500 BC in Finland. Native Americans made their nets on the [Columbia River](26047) from grass, [cedar](322807), and [spruce](45840) root fibers.
## Other methods of catching fish
- [Spear](22902)
- Tame [Cormorant](78153) | A **fishing net** is a woven trap usually used to catch fish. They are usually made out of rope. A net is a kind of tool.
**Fishing nets** are one of the oldest ways of catching fish. They can be made with all kinds of fabric like nylon, cotton, grass, flax, and tree fibers. The oldest known fish nets dates back to 8500 BC in Finland. Native Americans made their nets on the Columbia River from grass, cedar, and spruce root fibers.
## Other methods of catching fish
- Spear
- Tame Cormorant | medium | false | false |
540 | Internet slang | **Internet slang** is [slang](717) words which are used on the [internet](362). Most of these words are new, such as [Wiki](907) and [blog](115426), which were not used before the internet became [popular](220515).
Some old words were given new [meaning](467197)s, such as [mail](16155) (which now means email). This makes many [metaphor](510)
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Some old words were given new meanings, such as mail (which now means email). This makes many metaphor
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542 | Nauru | **Nauru**, ( ) is a island nation in the [South Pacific](1975). Its nearest neighbour is [Kiribati](11465), east. Nauru is the smallest island nation, covering just , the smallest [republic](4978), and the only republican state without a [capital](1968). With 10,670 residents, it is the third least-populated country after [Vatican City](897) and [Tuvalu](4648).
Nauru is a phosphate rock [island](367), and its main export since 1907 has been phosphate. [English](2843) and [Nauruan](871690) are the official languages. The president is [David Adeang](1066044).
## Geography
Nauru is a oval-shaped island in the southwestern Pacific Ocean, south of the [equator](6792). The island is surrounded by a [coral reef](29718), which can be seen during low tide. Because of this, a [harbor](326) can not be built. [Canals](4706) let small boats get to the island. An area of ground where plants can easily grow wide lies inland from the beach.
Coral cliffs surround Nauru's plateau (highland). The highest point, the Command Ridge, is above sea level. The only fertile areas are near to the ocean, where [coconut palm](48803)s flourish. The land surrounding Buada Lagoon supports bananas, [pineapple](15719)s, vegetables, pandanus trees, and [hardwood](311057)s such as the tomano tree.
Nauru was one of three great [phosphate rock](18400) (bird droppings) islands in the Pacific Ocean (the others were Banaba (Ocean Island) in [Kiribati](11465) and Makatea in [French Polynesia](28369)). The phosphate reserves on Nauru are now almost used up. Phosphate mining in the plateau has left a bare area of land with limestone peaks up to high. Mining has stripped and destroyed about 80 per cent of Nauru's land, and has affected the surrounding [Exclusive Economic Zone](186284). About 40 per cent of marine life has been killed by mud and phosphate drainage.
There are only about 60 [native](166292) [vascular plant](67014) species on the island. Coconut farming, [mining](6663), and [introduced species](96067) have damaged the island's native [vegetation](46093). There are no native land [mammal](525)s, but there are native insects, land crabs, and birds, including the Nauru Reed Warbler. The [Polynesian rat](150496), cats, dogs, pigs, and chickens have been introduced to Nauru from ships.
There are only a few [fresh water](230229) sources on Nauru. Storage tanks collect rainwater, but the islanders usually have to rely on [desalination plants](56399) at Nauru's Utilities Agency.
The island's biggest problems are [climate change](66788) and rising sea levels. Nauru is the seventh most [global warming](7368) threatened nation due to flooding. At least 80 per cent of the land of Nauru is well elevated, but this area will be uninhabitable until the phosphate mining improvement programme is started
## Climate
Nauru's climate is hot and very humid year-round because of how close it is to the equator and the ocean. Nauru is hit by [monsoon](75346) rains between November and February, but does not usually have [cyclones](65766). How much rain there is every year is highly variable, and is influenced by the El Niño-Southern Oscillation. There have been many [droughts](23713) in Nauru because of this. The temperature on Nauru ranges between and during the day, and between and at night.
## Administrative divisions
Nauru is divided into fourteen administrative districts.
|Nr.||District||Former Name||Area ([ha](23386)) || Population (2005) || No. of villages || Density persons / ha|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|1|Aiwo|Aiue|100|1,092|8|10.9|
|2|Anabar|Anabar|143|502|15|3.5|
|3|Anetan|Añetañ|100|516|12|5.2|
|4|Anibare|Anybody|314|160|17|0.5|
|5|Baiti|Beidi|123|572|15|4.7|
|6|Boe|Boi|66|795|4|12.0|
|7|Buada|Buada|266|716|14|2.7|
|8|[Denigomodu](1045058)|Denikomotu|118|2,827|17|24.0|
|9|Ewa|Eoa|117|318|12|2.7|
|10|Ijuw|Ijub|112|303|13|2.7|
|11|[Meneng](1045059)|Meneñ|288|1,830|18|6.4|
|12|Nibok|Ennibeck|136|432|11|3.2|
|13|Uaboe|Ueboi|97|335|6|3.5|
|14|Yaren|Moqua|150|820|7|5.5|
||**Nauru**|Naoero|2,130|11,218|169|5.3|
## Other websites
- [Nauru, Permanent Mission to the United Nations](http://www.un.int/nauru/)
- [Asian Development Bank Country Economic Report, Nauru, November 2007](https://web.archive.org/web/20110607064452/http://www.adb.org/Documents/CERs/NAU/CER-NAU-2007.pdf)
- [Our Airline](http://www.ourairline.com.au/) - the former Air Nauru
- [Discover Nauru](http://www.discovernauru.com) The Official Nauru Tourism Website
- [CenPac](http://cenpac.net.nr) - The ISP of the Republic of Nauru
- [Radio program "This American Life" featured a 30-minute story on Nauru](http://www.thislife.org/Radio_Episode.aspx?episode=253)
- [High resolution aerial views of Nauru on Google Maps](https://maps.google.com/?t=h&ie=UTF8&om=1&ll=-0.528624,166.938715&spn=0.061538,0.080338&z=14)
- [Nauru country information on globalEDGE](http://globaledge.msu.edu/countryInsights/country.asp?countryID=208)
## Infobox (country)
- **conventional long name**: Republic of Nauru
- **common name**: Nauru
- **image flag**: Flag of Nauru.svg
- **image coat**: Coat of arms of Nauru.svg
- **national motto**: "God's will first"
- **national anthem**:
- **image map**: Nauru on the globe (Polynesia centered).svg
- **capital**: Yaren_District, Yaren Officially none<sup>a</sup>
- **largest city**: Denigomodu District, Denigomodu
- **official languages**: * English language, English
* Nauruan language, Nauruan
- **languages type**: Commonly spoken
- **languages**: English
- **demonym**: Nauruan
- **government type**: Unitary state, Unitary parliamentary republic under a non-partisan democracy
- **leader title1**: President of Nauru, President
- **leader name1**: David Adeang
- **leader title2**: List of Speakers of the Parliament of Nauru, Speaker of the Parliament
- **leader name2**: Marcus Stephen
- **legislature**: Parliament of Nauru, Parliament
- **sovereignty type**: Independence
- **established event1**: , <small>(from the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand)</small>
- **established date1**: 31 January 1968
- **area km2**: 21
- **area rank**: 193rd
- **area sq mi**: 8.1
- **percent water**: 0.57
- **population census**: 11,200
- **population census year**: October 2018
- **population census rank**: 234th
- **population density km2**: 480
- **population density sq mi**: 1,243
- **population density rank**: 25th
- **gdp ppp**: $160 million
- **gdp ppp year**: 2017
- **gdp ppp rank**: 192nd
- **gdp ppp per capita**: $12,052
- **gdp ppp per capita rank**: 94th
- **gdp nominal**: $114 million
- **gdp nominal year**: 2017
- **gdp nominal per capita**: $8,570
- **currency**: Australian dollar
- **currency code**: AUD
- **utc offset**: +12
- **drives on**: Right- and left-hand traffic, left
- **calling code**: +674
- **cctld**: .nr
- **footnote a**: Nauru does not have an official capital, but Yaren is the largest settlement and the seat of parliament.
- **footnote b**: English is not an official language, but it is widely spoken by the majority of the population and it is commonly used in government, legislation and commerce alongside Nauruan. Due to Nauru's history and relationship with Australia, Australian English is the dominant variety. And is _de facto_ official. | **Nauru**, ( ) is a island nation in the South Pacific. Its nearest neighbour is Kiribati, east. Nauru is the smallest island nation, covering just , the smallest republic, and the only republican state without a capital. With 10,670 residents, it is the third least-populated country after Vatican City and Tuvalu.
Nauru is a phosphate rock island, and its main export since 1907 has been phosphate. English and Nauruan are the official languages. The president is David Adeang.
## Geography
Nauru is a oval-shaped island in the southwestern Pacific Ocean, south of the equator. The island is surrounded by a coral reef, which can be seen during low tide. Because of this, a harbor can not be built. Canals let small boats get to the island. An area of ground where plants can easily grow wide lies inland from the beach.
Coral cliffs surround Nauru's plateau (highland). The highest point, the Command Ridge, is above sea level. The only fertile areas are near to the ocean, where coconut palms flourish. The land surrounding Buada Lagoon supports bananas, pineapples, vegetables, pandanus trees, and hardwoods such as the tomano tree.
Nauru was one of three great phosphate rock (bird droppings) islands in the Pacific Ocean (the others were Banaba (Ocean Island) in Kiribati and Makatea in French Polynesia). The phosphate reserves on Nauru are now almost used up. Phosphate mining in the plateau has left a bare area of land with limestone peaks up to high. Mining has stripped and destroyed about 80 per cent of Nauru's land, and has affected the surrounding Exclusive Economic Zone. About 40 per cent of marine life has been killed by mud and phosphate drainage.
There are only about 60 native vascular plant species on the island. Coconut farming, mining, and introduced species have damaged the island's native vegetation. There are no native land mammals, but there are native insects, land crabs, and birds, including the Nauru Reed Warbler. The Polynesian rat, cats, dogs, pigs, and chickens have been introduced to Nauru from ships.
There are only a few fresh water sources on Nauru. Storage tanks collect rainwater, but the islanders usually have to rely on desalination plants at Nauru's Utilities Agency.
The island's biggest problems are climate change and rising sea levels. Nauru is the seventh most global warming threatened nation due to flooding. At least 80 per cent of the land of Nauru is well elevated, but this area will be uninhabitable until the phosphate mining improvement programme is started
## Climate
Nauru's climate is hot and very humid year-round because of how close it is to the equator and the ocean. Nauru is hit by monsoon rains between November and February, but does not usually have cyclones. How much rain there is every year is highly variable, and is influenced by the El Niño-Southern Oscillation. There have been many droughts in Nauru because of this. The temperature on Nauru ranges between and during the day, and between and at night.
## Administrative divisions
Nauru is divided into fourteen administrative districts.
|Nr.||District||Former Name||Area (ha) || Population (2005) || No. of villages || Density persons / ha|
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|1|Aiwo|Aiue|100|1,092|8|10.9|
|2|Anabar|Anabar|143|502|15|3.5|
|3|Anetan|Añetañ|100|516|12|5.2|
|4|Anibare|Anybody|314|160|17|0.5|
|5|Baiti|Beidi|123|572|15|4.7|
|6|Boe|Boi|66|795|4|12.0|
|7|Buada|Buada|266|716|14|2.7|
|8|Denigomodu|Denikomotu|118|2,827|17|24.0|
|9|Ewa|Eoa|117|318|12|2.7|
|10|Ijuw|Ijub|112|303|13|2.7|
|11|Meneng|Meneñ|288|1,830|18|6.4|
|12|Nibok|Ennibeck|136|432|11|3.2|
|13|Uaboe|Ueboi|97|335|6|3.5|
|14|Yaren|Moqua|150|820|7|5.5|
||**Nauru**|Naoero|2,130|11,218|169|5.3|
## Other websites
- Nauru, Permanent Mission to the United Nations
- Asian Development Bank Country Economic Report, Nauru, November 2007
- Our Airline - the former Air Nauru
- Discover Nauru The Official Nauru Tourism Website
- CenPac - The ISP of the Republic of Nauru
- Radio program "This American Life" featured a 30-minute story on Nauru
- High resolution aerial views of Nauru on Google Maps
- Nauru country information on globalEDGE
## Infobox (country)
- **conventional long name**: Republic of Nauru
- **common name**: Nauru
- **image flag**: Flag of Nauru.svg
- **image coat**: Coat of arms of Nauru.svg
- **national motto**: "God's will first"
- **national anthem**:
- **image map**: Nauru on the globe (Polynesia centered).svg
- **capital**: Yaren_District, Yaren Officially none<sup>a</sup>
- **largest city**: Denigomodu District, Denigomodu
- **official languages**: * English language, English
* Nauruan language, Nauruan
- **languages type**: Commonly spoken
- **languages**: English
- **demonym**: Nauruan
- **government type**: Unitary state, Unitary parliamentary republic under a non-partisan democracy
- **leader title1**: President of Nauru, President
- **leader name1**: David Adeang
- **leader title2**: List of Speakers of the Parliament of Nauru, Speaker of the Parliament
- **leader name2**: Marcus Stephen
- **legislature**: Parliament of Nauru, Parliament
- **sovereignty type**: Independence
- **established event1**: , <small>(from the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand)</small>
- **established date1**: 31 January 1968
- **area km2**: 21
- **area rank**: 193rd
- **area sq mi**: 8.1
- **percent water**: 0.57
- **population census**: 11,200
- **population census year**: October 2018
- **population census rank**: 234th
- **population density km2**: 480
- **population density sq mi**: 1,243
- **population density rank**: 25th
- **gdp ppp**: $160 million
- **gdp ppp year**: 2017
- **gdp ppp rank**: 192nd
- **gdp ppp per capita**: $12,052
- **gdp ppp per capita rank**: 94th
- **gdp nominal**: $114 million
- **gdp nominal year**: 2017
- **gdp nominal per capita**: $8,570
- **currency**: Australian dollar
- **currency code**: AUD
- **utc offset**: +12
- **drives on**: Right- and left-hand traffic, left
- **calling code**: +674
- **cctld**: .nr
- **footnote a**: Nauru does not have an official capital, but Yaren is the largest settlement and the seat of parliament.
- **footnote b**: English is not an official language, but it is widely spoken by the majority of the population and it is commonly used in government, legislation and commerce alongside Nauruan. Due to Nauru's history and relationship with Australia, Australian English is the dominant variety. And is _de facto_ official. | low | false | false |
543 | Noun | |Noun, is a naming word for|Examples|
| --- | --- |
|a person|**Proper Nouns:** Ananya, Pranav,A Adhrit,Aarav,Archana etc. **Common Nouns:** president, mother, father, man, woman, boy, girl|
|a place|**Proper Nouns:** Disneyland, America, Stonehenge, Italy **Common Nouns:** kitchen, castle, yard, garden, city|
|a thing|**Proper Nouns:** _Hamlet_ <sup>(a play)</sup> **Common Nouns:** table, star, cup, book, water, food, shoe, shirt **Abstract Nouns:** truth, danger, happiness, time, friendship, humour|
|colspan="2"|<small>Abstract Nouns: Things that cannot be interacted physically, touched or seen Proper Nouns: are specific (i.e., not generic) name for a particular person, place, or thing.</small> <small>Common Noun: denotes a class of objects or a concept as opposed to a particular individual</small> <small>Collective Noun: denotes a group of people, animals, objects or concepts as a single entity.</small>|
A **noun** is a kind of [word](911) (see part of speech) that is usually the [name](534) of something such as a person, place, thing, [animal](62), or [idea](18603). In [English](2843), nouns can be [singular](52840) or [plural](2029).
Nouns often need a word called an [article](32115) or determiner (like _the_ or _that_). These words usually do not go with other kinds of words like [verb](893)s or [adverb](3829)s. (For example, people do not also describe nouns). In English, there are more nouns than any other kind of word.
Every language in the world has nouns, but they are not always used in the same ways. They also can have different properties in different languages. In some other languages, nouns do not change for singular and plural, and sometimes there is no word for _the_.
Examples of nouns: _time, people, way, year, government, day, world, life, work, part, number, house, system, company, end, party, information_.
## History
The word **noun** comes from the [Latin](6592) _nomen_ meaning "[name](534)." Words like nouns were described in early days by the [Sanskrit](19033) grammarian Pāṇini and ancient Greeks like Dionysios Thrax. Also in ancient Tamil like "Peyarchol"
## Uses of nouns
In English [sentence](7721)s, nouns can be used as a [subject](249308), [object](249307), or complement. They often come after [preposition](3826)s, as the 'object of preposition'.
Nouns can sometimes describe other nouns (such as a **soccer** ball). When they do this, they are called modifiers or adjuncts.
There are also [verb](893) forms that can be used in the same way as nouns (such as 'I like _running_.') These are called _verbals_ or _verbal nouns_, and include _[participle](310638)s_ (which can also be adjectives) and _[infinitive](18194)s_.
Nouns are classified into **common** and **proper**. [Pronoun](3828)s have commonly been considered a different part of speech from nouns, but in the past some grammars have included them as nouns as do many modern [linguists](20194).
### Proper nouns
**Proper nouns** (also called **proper name**) are specific names. Examples of proper nouns are: _London, John, God, October, Mozart, Saturday, Coke, Mr. Brown, Atlantic Ocean._ Proper nouns are individual things with names, not general nouns.
Proper nouns begin with an upper case (capital) letter in [English](2843) and many other languages that use the Roman alphabet. (However, in [German](3346), all nouns begin with an upper case letter.) The word "I" is really a pronoun, although it is capitalized in English, like a proper noun.
Some common nouns (see below) can also be used as proper nouns. For example, someone might be named "Tiger Smith" -- even though he is not a [tiger](9796) or a [smith](74242).
### Common nouns
**Common nouns** are general names. Sometimes the same word can be either a common noun or a proper noun, depending on how it is used; for example:
- there can be many _gods_, but there is only one _[God](305)_.
- there can be many _internets_ (two or more networks connected together), but the largest internet in the world is the _[Internet](362)_.
- It is good for the heart to drink the juice of [pineapple](15719).[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pineapple](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pineapple)
## Countability
In English and many other languages, nouns have 'number'. But some nouns are only **[singular](52840)** (such as _furniture, physics_) and others are only **[plural](2029)** (such as _clothes, police_). Also, some nouns are **countable** (for example, _one piece, two pieces_) but others are **uncountable** (for example, we do not say _one furniture, two furnitures_).
The plural form of most nouns is created simply by adding the letter(s) **-(e)s.**
- more than one snake = snakes
- more than one ski = skis
- more than one Barrymore = Barrymores
Despite plural forms being written using the letter(s) **-(e)s**, the [pronunciation](95605) of the letter(s) will pronounced as /-s/, /-z/, or /-ız/ depending on which type of [phoneme](217600), or unique sound, comes before it. These variations of the plural [morpheme](248941) are called [allomorphs](248941).
Some dictionaries list "busses" as an acceptable plural for "bus". Presumably, this is because the plural "buses" looks like it ought to rhyme with the plural of "fuse," which is "fuses." "Buses" is still listed as the preferable plural form. "Busses" is the plural for "buss," a seldom used word for "kiss."
There are several nouns that have irregular plural forms. Plurals formed in this way are sometimes called **mutated (or mutating) plurals**.
- more than one child = children
- more than one woman = women
- more than one man = men
- more than one person = people
- more than one goose = geese
- more than one mouse = mice
- more than one deer = deer
- more than one ox = oxen
- more than one tooth = teeth
Many of the above irregular plural forms stem from [Old English](48111), which had more complex rules for making plural forms.
And, finally, there are nouns that maintain their Latin or Greek form in the plural.
- more than one nucleus = nuclei
- more than one syllabus = syllabi
- more than one focus = foci
- more than one fungus = fungi
- more than one cactus = cacti (_cactuses_ is acceptable)
- more than one thesis = theses
- more than one crisis = crises
- more than one phenomenon = phenomena
- more than one index = indices (_indexes_ is acceptable)
- more than one appendix = appendices (_appendixes_ is acceptable)
- more than one criterion = criteria
- more than one octopus = octopedes is correct (as the word is ). However, octopuses is acceptable, more used and simpler.
## Possessives
Nouns are words for things, and since things can be possessed, nouns can also change to show possession in grammar. In English, we usually add an [apostrophe](20731) and an _s_ to nouns to make them _possessive_, or sometimes just an apostrophe when there is already an _s_ at the end, like this:
- This is Sam. This is **Sam's** cat.
- The **woman's** hair is long.
- There are three cats. The **cats** mother is sleeping.
## How adjectives become nouns
Most adjectives become nouns by adding the [suffix](3936) -**ness**. Example: Take the adjective 'natural', add 'ness' to get 'naturalness', a noun. To see a list of 100 adjectives used in [Basic English](222712), [click here](3318).
## Word order in noun phrases
A noun phrase is a [phrase](3825) where the head word is a noun. In English, the word order of most noun phrases is that [determiners](642111), [adjectives](3318), and modifying nouns in respective order must appear before the head word, and relative clauses must appear after the head word.
## Other websites
- [Nouns](http://nounsstarting.com/) | |Noun, is a naming word for|Examples|
| --- | --- |
|a person|**Proper Nouns:** Ananya, Pranav,A Adhrit,Aarav,Archana etc. **Common Nouns:** president, mother, father, man, woman, boy, girl|
|a place|**Proper Nouns:** Disneyland, America, Stonehenge, Italy **Common Nouns:** kitchen, castle, yard, garden, city|
|a thing|**Proper Nouns:** _Hamlet_ <sup>(a play)</sup> **Common Nouns:** table, star, cup, book, water, food, shoe, shirt **Abstract Nouns:** truth, danger, happiness, time, friendship, humour|
|colspan="2"|<small>Abstract Nouns: Things that cannot be interacted physically, touched or seen Proper Nouns: are specific (i.e., not generic) name for a particular person, place, or thing.</small> <small>Common Noun: denotes a class of objects or a concept as opposed to a particular individual</small> <small>Collective Noun: denotes a group of people, animals, objects or concepts as a single entity.</small>|
A **noun** is a kind of word (see part of speech) that is usually the name of something such as a person, place, thing, animal, or idea. In English, nouns can be singular or plural.
Nouns often need a word called an article or determiner (like _the_ or _that_). These words usually do not go with other kinds of words like verbs or adverbs. (For example, people do not also describe nouns). In English, there are more nouns than any other kind of word.
Every language in the world has nouns, but they are not always used in the same ways. They also can have different properties in different languages. In some other languages, nouns do not change for singular and plural, and sometimes there is no word for _the_.
Examples of nouns: _time, people, way, year, government, day, world, life, work, part, number, house, system, company, end, party, information_.
## History
The word **noun** comes from the Latin _nomen_ meaning "name." Words like nouns were described in early days by the Sanskrit grammarian Pāṇini and ancient Greeks like Dionysios Thrax. Also in ancient Tamil like "Peyarchol"
## Uses of nouns
In English sentences, nouns can be used as a subject, object, or complement. They often come after prepositions, as the 'object of preposition'.
Nouns can sometimes describe other nouns (such as a **soccer** ball). When they do this, they are called modifiers or adjuncts.
There are also verb forms that can be used in the same way as nouns (such as 'I like _running_.') These are called _verbals_ or _verbal nouns_, and include _participles_ (which can also be adjectives) and _infinitives_.
Nouns are classified into **common** and **proper**. Pronouns have commonly been considered a different part of speech from nouns, but in the past some grammars have included them as nouns as do many modern linguists.
### Proper nouns
**Proper nouns** (also called **proper name**) are specific names. Examples of proper nouns are: _London, John, God, October, Mozart, Saturday, Coke, Mr. Brown, Atlantic Ocean._ Proper nouns are individual things with names, not general nouns.
Proper nouns begin with an upper case (capital) letter in English and many other languages that use the Roman alphabet. (However, in German, all nouns begin with an upper case letter.) The word "I" is really a pronoun, although it is capitalized in English, like a proper noun.
Some common nouns (see below) can also be used as proper nouns. For example, someone might be named "Tiger Smith" -- even though he is not a tiger or a smith.
### Common nouns
**Common nouns** are general names. Sometimes the same word can be either a common noun or a proper noun, depending on how it is used; for example:
- there can be many _gods_, but there is only one _God_.
- there can be many _internets_ (two or more networks connected together), but the largest internet in the world is the _Internet_.
- It is good for the heart to drink the juice of pineapple.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pineapple
## Countability
In English and many other languages, nouns have 'number'. But some nouns are only **singular** (such as _furniture, physics_) and others are only **plural** (such as _clothes, police_). Also, some nouns are **countable** (for example, _one piece, two pieces_) but others are **uncountable** (for example, we do not say _one furniture, two furnitures_).
The plural form of most nouns is created simply by adding the letter(s) **-(e)s.**
- more than one snake = snakes
- more than one ski = skis
- more than one Barrymore = Barrymores
Despite plural forms being written using the letter(s) **-(e)s**, the pronunciation of the letter(s) will pronounced as /-s/, /-z/, or /-ız/ depending on which type of phoneme, or unique sound, comes before it. These variations of the plural morpheme are called allomorphs.
Some dictionaries list "busses" as an acceptable plural for "bus". Presumably, this is because the plural "buses" looks like it ought to rhyme with the plural of "fuse," which is "fuses." "Buses" is still listed as the preferable plural form. "Busses" is the plural for "buss," a seldom used word for "kiss."
There are several nouns that have irregular plural forms. Plurals formed in this way are sometimes called **mutated (or mutating) plurals**.
- more than one child = children
- more than one woman = women
- more than one man = men
- more than one person = people
- more than one goose = geese
- more than one mouse = mice
- more than one deer = deer
- more than one ox = oxen
- more than one tooth = teeth
Many of the above irregular plural forms stem from Old English, which had more complex rules for making plural forms.
And, finally, there are nouns that maintain their Latin or Greek form in the plural.
- more than one nucleus = nuclei
- more than one syllabus = syllabi
- more than one focus = foci
- more than one fungus = fungi
- more than one cactus = cacti (_cactuses_ is acceptable)
- more than one thesis = theses
- more than one crisis = crises
- more than one phenomenon = phenomena
- more than one index = indices (_indexes_ is acceptable)
- more than one appendix = appendices (_appendixes_ is acceptable)
- more than one criterion = criteria
- more than one octopus = octopedes is correct (as the word is ). However, octopuses is acceptable, more used and simpler.
## Possessives
Nouns are words for things, and since things can be possessed, nouns can also change to show possession in grammar. In English, we usually add an apostrophe and an _s_ to nouns to make them _possessive_, or sometimes just an apostrophe when there is already an _s_ at the end, like this:
- This is Sam. This is **Sam's** cat.
- The **woman's** hair is long.
- There are three cats. The **cats** mother is sleeping.
## How adjectives become nouns
Most adjectives become nouns by adding the suffix -**ness**. Example: Take the adjective 'natural', add 'ness' to get 'naturalness', a noun. To see a list of 100 adjectives used in Basic English, click here.
## Word order in noun phrases
A noun phrase is a phrase where the head word is a noun. In English, the word order of most noun phrases is that determiners, adjectives, and modifying nouns in respective order must appear before the head word, and relative clauses must appear after the head word.
## Other websites
- Nouns | high | false | false |
547 | Nature | The words **nature** and **natural** are used for all the things that are normally not made by [human](502310)s. The word comes from the Latin _natura_ meaning "[birth](7637)". Nature includes many things like [weather](3399), organisms, [landform](54395)s, celestial bodies. [Scientist](748)s study the way the parts of nature work. Things that have been made by people are said to be man-made or called artifacts.
There are natural sciences that study different parts of nature, for example the science of [ecology](243) is about plants and animals as a whole, while [biology](101) studies every type of living thing.
From one point of view, humans are a prime example of nature, and are the most widely studied natural inhabitants of the planet earth. Humans interact with each other in their natural environment on a day-to-day basis. Every part of nature everything from the air outside to the dirt on the ground is interdependent. [Medicine](3793) studies humans in health and sickness.
From another point of view, humans and nature can be said to be in [conflict](99271). People always use [natural resource](552)s. They cut down [tree](847)s, [mine ores](6663), grow [crop](11502)s and manufacture things from natural material. [Fire](9476)s, cars, and factories make a lot of smoke and harm many places. People who like to leave nature unharmed and those who feel they need to use more of nature often fight about what they should do. In the modern world, with many more people and many big cities, these problems are becoming more serious.
Nature, in the broadest sense, means the physical world as a whole. This is the meaning that [physics](591), the study of nature (etymologically), takes.
A useful definition of _natural_ is
- "Happening or operating in accordance with the ordinary course of nature". _Oxford Shorter English Dictionary_ says the word in this sense is first found in 1477.
## Related pages
- [Human nature](134109)
- Life timeline
- Nature timeline
- [Nature versus nurture](322362) | The words **nature** and **natural** are used for all the things that are normally not made by humans. The word comes from the Latin _natura_ meaning "birth". Nature includes many things like weather, organisms, landforms, celestial bodies. Scientists study the way the parts of nature work. Things that have been made by people are said to be man-made or called artifacts.
There are natural sciences that study different parts of nature, for example the science of ecology is about plants and animals as a whole, while biology studies every type of living thing.
From one point of view, humans are a prime example of nature, and are the most widely studied natural inhabitants of the planet earth. Humans interact with each other in their natural environment on a day-to-day basis. Every part of nature everything from the air outside to the dirt on the ground is interdependent. Medicine studies humans in health and sickness.
From another point of view, humans and nature can be said to be in conflict. People always use natural resources. They cut down trees, mine ores, grow crops and manufacture things from natural material. Fires, cars, and factories make a lot of smoke and harm many places. People who like to leave nature unharmed and those who feel they need to use more of nature often fight about what they should do. In the modern world, with many more people and many big cities, these problems are becoming more serious.
Nature, in the broadest sense, means the physical world as a whole. This is the meaning that physics, the study of nature (etymologically), takes.
A useful definition of _natural_ is
- "Happening or operating in accordance with the ordinary course of nature". _Oxford Shorter English Dictionary_ says the word in this sense is first found in 1477.
## Related pages
- Human nature
- Life timeline
- Nature timeline
- Nature versus nurture | high | false | false |
552 | Natural resource | A **natural resource** is what people can use from the [natural environment](47179). Examples of natural resources are [air](9), [water](939), [wood](6103), oil, wind energy, [natural gas](4114), [iron](223080), [mineral](4668) and [coal](4111).
The dividing line between natural resources and man-made resources is not clear-cut. Hydro-electric energy is not a natural resource because people use [turbine](55949)s and generators to convert the energy of moving water to [electric current](28112). [Petroleum](4113) and [ores](6712) are natural, but need to be changed in some way to make them into usable refined oil and [metals](3332). Atomic energy comes from metallic [nuclear fuel](246587), like [fissile](8061) [uranium](19146) and [plutonium](37855), but rocks need technical work to make them into these [nuclear fuels](246587).
## Supply
We often say there are two sorts of natural resources: renewable resources and non-renewable resources.
- A [renewable resource](55646) is one that can be used again and again. For example, [soil](7117), [sunlight](30982) and [water](939) are renewable resources. However, in some circumstances, even water is not renewable easily. Wood is a renewable resource, but it takes time to renew, and in some places, people use the land for something else. Soil, if it blows away, is not easy to renew.
- A [non-renewable resource](314707) is a resource that does not grow and come back, or a resource that would take a very long time to come back. For example, [coal](4111) is a non-renewable resource. When we use coal, there is less coal afterward. The non-renewable resource can be used directly (for example, burning oil to cook), or we can find a renewable resource to use (for example, using wind energy to make [electricity](7163) to cook).
Most natural resources are limited. This means they will eventually run out. A perpetual resource has a never-ending supply. Some examples of effectively perpetual resources include [solar energy](56400), [tidal energy](56180), and wind energy. They are perpetual in effect, although absolutely they do have a limit. There may be a practical limit to how much can be taken in a given day or year, but that amount can be taken again next day or next year (though not forever).
Non-perpetual resources include fossil fuels such as [petroleum](4113), [coal](4111), etc. They have a limit of usage, and are running out. Some things influencing the supply of resources include whether it is able to be [recycled](30844), and whether there are suitable substitutes for the material. Non-renewable resources cannot be recycled. For example, [fossil fuel](19412)s cannot be recycled.
## Demand
The [demand](9438) for resources can change with new [technology](15232), new needs, and new [economics](246) (e.g., changes in cost of the resources). Some material can go completely out of use, if people do not want it anymore. Demand of many natural resources is very high, but availability of some, such as [precious metal](14049)s, is very low.
## Availability
Different places have different natural resources. When people do not have a certain resource they need, they can either replace it with another resource, or [trade](2127) with another country to get the resource. People have sometimes [fought](942) to have them (for example, [spice](3939)s, water, arable farmland, [gold](3260), or petroleum).
When people do not have some resources, their [quality of life](928343) can get lower. So, people protect resources. When they can not get clean water, people may become [ill](4874); if there is not enough wood, trees will be cut and the forest will disappear over time ([deforestation](22751)); if there are not enough fish in a sea, people can die of [starvation](5548). Renewable resources include [crop](11502)s, wind, hydroelectric power, fish, and [sunlight](30982) Many people carefully save their natural resources so that others can use them in the future.
## Other websites
- [Earth's natural wealth](http://www.science.org.au/nova/newscientist/027ns_005.htm?id=mg19426051.200&print=true) | A **natural resource** is what people can use from the natural environment. Examples of natural resources are air, water, wood, oil, wind energy, natural gas, iron, mineral and coal.
The dividing line between natural resources and man-made resources is not clear-cut. Hydro-electric energy is not a natural resource because people use turbines and generators to convert the energy of moving water to electric current. Petroleum and ores are natural, but need to be changed in some way to make them into usable refined oil and metals. Atomic energy comes from metallic nuclear fuel, like fissile uranium and plutonium, but rocks need technical work to make them into these nuclear fuels.
## Supply
We often say there are two sorts of natural resources: renewable resources and non-renewable resources.
- A renewable resource is one that can be used again and again. For example, soil, sunlight and water are renewable resources. However, in some circumstances, even water is not renewable easily. Wood is a renewable resource, but it takes time to renew, and in some places, people use the land for something else. Soil, if it blows away, is not easy to renew.
- A non-renewable resource is a resource that does not grow and come back, or a resource that would take a very long time to come back. For example, coal is a non-renewable resource. When we use coal, there is less coal afterward. The non-renewable resource can be used directly (for example, burning oil to cook), or we can find a renewable resource to use (for example, using wind energy to make electricity to cook).
Most natural resources are limited. This means they will eventually run out. A perpetual resource has a never-ending supply. Some examples of effectively perpetual resources include solar energy, tidal energy, and wind energy. They are perpetual in effect, although absolutely they do have a limit. There may be a practical limit to how much can be taken in a given day or year, but that amount can be taken again next day or next year (though not forever).
Non-perpetual resources include fossil fuels such as petroleum, coal, etc. They have a limit of usage, and are running out. Some things influencing the supply of resources include whether it is able to be recycled, and whether there are suitable substitutes for the material. Non-renewable resources cannot be recycled. For example, fossil fuels cannot be recycled.
## Demand
The demand for resources can change with new technology, new needs, and new economics (e.g., changes in cost of the resources). Some material can go completely out of use, if people do not want it anymore. Demand of many natural resources is very high, but availability of some, such as precious metals, is very low.
## Availability
Different places have different natural resources. When people do not have a certain resource they need, they can either replace it with another resource, or trade with another country to get the resource. People have sometimes fought to have them (for example, spices, water, arable farmland, gold, or petroleum).
When people do not have some resources, their quality of life can get lower. So, people protect resources. When they can not get clean water, people may become ill; if there is not enough wood, trees will be cut and the forest will disappear over time (deforestation); if there are not enough fish in a sea, people can die of starvation. Renewable resources include crops, wind, hydroelectric power, fish, and sunlight Many people carefully save their natural resources so that others can use them in the future.
## Other websites
- Earth's natural wealth | medium | false | false |
554 | Negentropy | **Negentropy** is reverse [entropy](41462). It means things becoming more in order. Here 'order' means organisation, [structure](21702) and [function](53849): the opposite of randomness or [chaos](23592). One example of negentropy is a star system such as the [Solar System](800). Another example is [life](425).
As a general rule, everything in the [universe](858) tends towards [entropy](41462). [Star system](454965)s eventually become dead. All energy has gone, and everything in the system is _at the temperature of the surrounding space_. The opposite of entropy is negentropy. It is a [temporary](67577) condition in which certain things are hotter and more highly organised than the surrounding space. This is the [second law of thermodynamics](63082):
- The second law of thermodynamics states that the total entropy of an isolated [system](45869) always increases over time.
[Life](425) is considered to be **negentropic** because it converts things which have some order, such as [food](280), into things with more order, such as [cell](130418)s in the [body](4361), tissues, and organs. In doing so, it gives off [heat](5761), thus increasing entropy. Another example of negentropic things are [societies](689), or social [systems](104247), because they take disorderly things such as [communications](2817), and make them more orderly and useful. | **Negentropy** is reverse entropy. It means things becoming more in order. Here 'order' means organisation, structure and function: the opposite of randomness or chaos. One example of negentropy is a star system such as the Solar System. Another example is life.
As a general rule, everything in the universe tends towards entropy. Star systems eventually become dead. All energy has gone, and everything in the system is _at the temperature of the surrounding space_. The opposite of entropy is negentropy. It is a temporary condition in which certain things are hotter and more highly organised than the surrounding space. This is the second law of thermodynamics:
- The second law of thermodynamics states that the total entropy of an isolated system always increases over time.
Life is considered to be **negentropic** because it converts things which have some order, such as food, into things with more order, such as cells in the body, tissues, and organs. In doing so, it gives off heat, thus increasing entropy. Another example of negentropic things are societies, or social systems, because they take disorderly things such as communications, and make them more orderly and useful. | low | false | false |
557 | North America | **North America** is a large [continent](117) in the [Northern](6829) and [Western Hemisphere](24338)s of [Earth](219). It is to the east of the [Pacific Ocean](1975), the west of the [Atlantic Ocean](1936), the south of the [Arctic Ocean](1980), and it is the northern part of the Americas. The southernmost part is [Central America](3596). It is the third largest continent in the world after Asia and Africa. North America has a population of around 528 million, and is the 4th most populous continent in the world.
North America has three subregions which are the [Caribbean](15218), [Central America](3596), and North America. Depending on how it is used, "North America" can be used to mean as the **continent** as a whole to include all 23 countries or as a **subregion** to mean [Canada](219589), [Mexico](1935), and the [United States](219587) only.
Hundreds of millions of years ago, North America was part of a larger ancient [supercontinent](180540) named [Laurasia](258004). A few million years ago, a new [land bridge](417039) arose and connected North America to [South America](1989). [Beringia](216252) connected North America to [Siberia](33186) a few times during [ice age](47635)s in the past 20,000 years. North America has many warm tropical islands such as the Bahamas. North America is currently north of South America.
## Countries
|Flag|Official name(s)|Area (km2 or sq mi)|Population|Density (pop. km2)|Capital|Official language(s)|||
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|align="center"||align="center"|[Antigua and Barbuda](6239)||101,489|622|St. John's|[English](2843)|
|align="center"||align="center"|Bahamas <small>Commonwealth of the Bahamas</small>||358,508|24|Nassau|[English](2843)|
|align="center"||align="center"|[Barbados](11471)||303,431|755|[Bridgetown](345799)|[English](2843)|
|align="center"||align="center"|[Belize](8284)||419,137|16|[Belmopan](356829)|[English](2843)|
|align="center"||align="center"|[Canada](219589)||38,486,736|5|[Ottawa](3838)|[English](2843) [French](3597)|
|align="center"||align="center"|[Costa Rica](12411) <small>Republic of Costa Rica</small>||5,256,612|112|[San Jose](389875)|[Spanish](6432)|
|align="center"||align="center"|[Cuba](178) <small>Republic of Cuba</small>||10,985,974|95|[Havana](20032)|[Spanish](6432)|
|align="center"||align="center"|[Dominica](9214) <small>Commonwhealth of Dominica</small>||74,656|96|[Roseau](26340)|[English](2843)|
|align="center"||align="center"|[Dominican Republic](15648)||10,790,744|188|[Santo Domingo](40215)|[Spanish](6432)|
|align="center"||align="center"|[El Salvador](10897) <small>Republic of El Salvador</small>||6,670,304|330|[San Salvador](108429)|[Spanish](6432)|
|align="center"||align="center"|[Grenada](12210)||114,700|477|St. George's|[English](2843)|
|align="center"||align="center"|[Guatemala](10298) <small>Republic of Guatemala</small>||17,980,803|133|[Guatemala City](249978)|[Spanish](6432)|
|align="center"||align="center"|[Haiti](15863) <small>Republic of Haiti</small>||11,270,161|77|[Port-au-Prince](76441)|[French](3597)|
|align="center"||align="center"|[Honduras](15789) <small>Republic of Honduras</small>||9,571,352|92|[Tegucigalpa](65588)|[Spanish](6432)|
|align="center"||align="center"|[Jamaica](11218) <small>Republic of Jamaica</small>||2,830,932|232|Kingston|[English](2843)|
|align="center"||align="center"|[Mexico](1935) <small>United Mexican States</small>||129,875,729|87|[Mexico City](11185)|[Spanish](6432)|
|align="center"||align="center"|[Nicaragua](132619) <small>Republic of Nicaragua</small>||6,359,689|221|[Managua](41445)|[Spanish](6432)|
|align="center"||align="center"|[Panama](6431) <small>Republic of Panama</small>||4,404,108|66|[Panama City](235475)|[Spanish](6432)|
|align="center"||align="center"|[Saint Kitts and Nevis](18021) <small>Federation of Saint Christopher and Nevis</small>||54,817|313|[Basseterre](292039)|[English](2843)|
|align="center"||align="center"|[Saint Lucia](20412)||167,591|586|[Castries](533580)|[English](2843)|
|align="center"||align="center"|[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines](18322)||100,814|722|[Kingstown](213348)|[English](2843)|
|align="center"||align="center"|[Trinidad and Tobago](17751) <small>Republic of Trinidad and Tobago</small>||1,534,937|295|[Port of Spain](446152)|[English](2843)|
|align="center"||align="center"|[United States](219587) <small>United States of America</small>||338,946,000|15|[Washington, D.C.](7172)|[English](2843) [Spanish](6432)|
## Related pages
- [Central America](3596)
- [South America](1989)
## Infobox (continent)
- **title**: North America
- **image**: Location North America.svg
- **area**: Around 24.71 million km2
- **population**: 528,720,588 (2008)
- **gdp nominal**: $20.3 trillion (201moo3)
- **gdp ppp**: $20.9 trillion (2013)
- **demonym**: North American
- **countries**: 23
- **languages**: Languages of North America, List of languages
- **time**: UTC−10 to UTC±0, UTC
- **internet**: Country code top-level domain#List of ccTLDs, North American TLD
- **cities**: List of the largest cities in North America, List of urban areas | **North America** is a large continent in the Northern and Western Hemispheres of Earth. It is to the east of the Pacific Ocean, the west of the Atlantic Ocean, the south of the Arctic Ocean, and it is the northern part of the Americas. The southernmost part is Central America. It is the third largest continent in the world after Asia and Africa. North America has a population of around 528 million, and is the 4th most populous continent in the world.
North America has three subregions which are the Caribbean, Central America, and North America. Depending on how it is used, "North America" can be used to mean as the **continent** as a whole to include all 23 countries or as a **subregion** to mean Canada, Mexico, and the United States only.
Hundreds of millions of years ago, North America was part of a larger ancient supercontinent named Laurasia. A few million years ago, a new land bridge arose and connected North America to South America. Beringia connected North America to Siberia a few times during ice ages in the past 20,000 years. North America has many warm tropical islands such as the Bahamas. North America is currently north of South America.
## Countries
|Flag|Official name(s)|Area (km2 or sq mi)|Population|Density (pop. km2)|Capital|Official language(s)|||
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
|align="center"||align="center"|Antigua and Barbuda||101,489|622|St. John's|English|
|align="center"||align="center"|Bahamas <small>Commonwealth of the Bahamas</small>||358,508|24|Nassau|English|
|align="center"||align="center"|Barbados||303,431|755|Bridgetown|English|
|align="center"||align="center"|Belize||419,137|16|Belmopan|English|
|align="center"||align="center"|Canada||38,486,736|5|Ottawa|English French|
|align="center"||align="center"|Costa Rica <small>Republic of Costa Rica</small>||5,256,612|112|San Jose|Spanish|
|align="center"||align="center"|Cuba <small>Republic of Cuba</small>||10,985,974|95|Havana|Spanish|
|align="center"||align="center"|Dominica <small>Commonwhealth of Dominica</small>||74,656|96|Roseau|English|
|align="center"||align="center"|Dominican Republic||10,790,744|188|Santo Domingo|Spanish|
|align="center"||align="center"|El Salvador <small>Republic of El Salvador</small>||6,670,304|330|San Salvador|Spanish|
|align="center"||align="center"|Grenada||114,700|477|St. George's|English|
|align="center"||align="center"|Guatemala <small>Republic of Guatemala</small>||17,980,803|133|Guatemala City|Spanish|
|align="center"||align="center"|Haiti <small>Republic of Haiti</small>||11,270,161|77|Port-au-Prince|French|
|align="center"||align="center"|Honduras <small>Republic of Honduras</small>||9,571,352|92|Tegucigalpa|Spanish|
|align="center"||align="center"|Jamaica <small>Republic of Jamaica</small>||2,830,932|232|Kingston|English|
|align="center"||align="center"|Mexico <small>United Mexican States</small>||129,875,729|87|Mexico City|Spanish|
|align="center"||align="center"|Nicaragua <small>Republic of Nicaragua</small>||6,359,689|221|Managua|Spanish|
|align="center"||align="center"|Panama <small>Republic of Panama</small>||4,404,108|66|Panama City|Spanish|
|align="center"||align="center"|Saint Kitts and Nevis <small>Federation of Saint Christopher and Nevis</small>||54,817|313|Basseterre|English|
|align="center"||align="center"|Saint Lucia||167,591|586|Castries|English|
|align="center"||align="center"|Saint Vincent and the Grenadines||100,814|722|Kingstown|English|
|align="center"||align="center"|Trinidad and Tobago <small>Republic of Trinidad and Tobago</small>||1,534,937|295|Port of Spain|English|
|align="center"||align="center"|United States <small>United States of America</small>||338,946,000|15|Washington, D.C.|English Spanish|
## Related pages
- Central America
- South America
## Infobox (continent)
- **title**: North America
- **image**: Location North America.svg
- **area**: Around 24.71 million km2
- **population**: 528,720,588 (2008)
- **gdp nominal**: $20.3 trillion (201moo3)
- **gdp ppp**: $20.9 trillion (2013)
- **demonym**: North American
- **countries**: 23
- **languages**: Languages of North America, List of languages
- **time**: UTC−10 to UTC±0, UTC
- **internet**: Country code top-level domain#List of ccTLDs, North American TLD
- **cities**: List of the largest cities in North America, List of urban areas | high | false | false |
558 | Neptune | ## Infobox (planet)
- **name**: Neptune
- **symbol**: , historically also
- **image**: Neptune Voyager2 color calibrated.png
- **caption**: Neptune in true color as captured by _Voyager 2_. Like Uranus, Neptune has a muted appearance; several storms can still be seen, such as the Great Dark Spot at the middle.
- **background**: #f8f9fa
- **discovered**: September 23, 1846
- **pronounced**: ,
- **adjectives**: Neptunian (), Poseidean
- **named after**: Latin , via French
- **epoch**: J2000
- **apsis**: helion
- **time periastron**: 2042-Sep-04
- **synodic period**: 367.49 days
- **inclination**: to ecliptic
6.43° to Sun's equator
0.74° to invariable plane
- **satellites**: Moons of Neptune, 16
- **equatorial radius**:
3.883 Earths
- **polar radius**:
3.829 Earths
- **surface area**:
14.98 Earths
- **volume**:
57.74 Earths
- **mass**:
17.147 Earths
5.15 Suns
- **surface grav**: 11.15 Acceleration, m/s<sup>2</sup>
1.14 _g-force, g_
- **moment of inertia factor**: (estimate)
- **escape velocity**: 23.5 km/s
- **rotation**:
16 h 6 m 36 s
- **sidereal day**: 0.6713 day
16 h 6 min 36 s
- **axial tilt**: 28.32° (to orbit)
- **right asc north pole**:
299.3°
- **declination**: 42.950°
- **albedo**: 0.290 (Bond albedo, bond
0.442 (Geometric albedo, geom.)
- **temp name1**: 1 bar level
- **magnitude**: 7.67 to 8.00
- **abs magnitude**: −6.9
- **angular size**: 2.2–2.4″ | ## Infobox (planet)
- **name**: Neptune
- **symbol**: , historically also
- **image**: Neptune Voyager2 color calibrated.png
- **caption**: Neptune in true color as captured by _Voyager 2_. Like Uranus, Neptune has a muted appearance; several storms can still be seen, such as the Great Dark Spot at the middle.
- **background**: #f8f9fa
- **discovered**: September 23, 1846
- **pronounced**: ,
- **adjectives**: Neptunian (), Poseidean
- **named after**: Latin , via French
- **epoch**: J2000
- **apsis**: helion
- **time periastron**: 2042-Sep-04
- **synodic period**: 367.49 days
- **inclination**: to ecliptic
6.43° to Sun's equator
0.74° to invariable plane
- **satellites**: Moons of Neptune, 16
- **equatorial radius**:
3.883 Earths
- **polar radius**:
3.829 Earths
- **surface area**:
14.98 Earths
- **volume**:
57.74 Earths
- **mass**:
17.147 Earths
5.15 Suns
- **surface grav**: 11.15 Acceleration, m/s<sup>2</sup>
1.14 _g-force, g_
- **moment of inertia factor**: (estimate)
- **escape velocity**: 23.5 km/s
- **rotation**:
16 h 6 m 36 s
- **sidereal day**: 0.6713 day
16 h 6 min 36 s
- **axial tilt**: 28.32° (to orbit)
- **right asc north pole**:
299.3°
- **declination**: 42.950°
- **albedo**: 0.290 (Bond albedo, bond
0.442 (Geometric albedo, geom.)
- **temp name1**: 1 bar level
- **magnitude**: 7.67 to 8.00
- **abs magnitude**: −6.9
- **angular size**: 2.2–2.4″ | high | true | false |
561 | Negative | **Negative** may mean:
- Something negative can be something bad.
- A [negative number](18528) is a number that is less than zero. 5 - 8 = -3.
- Some people also use _negative_ the same way as "[no](6135)", or other related words. "Not", "Never", "Nowhere" etc. are all negative words. On two-way radios the word "negative" is used instead of "no" to be clearer.
- In film photography, a _[film negative](277996)_ is an exposed [picture](6079) or [movie](3486) film that has been processed, and is ready to be used to make a print. In a negative, everything in the picture has the opposite color. Things that are white will be black, things that are red will be green, and things that are orange will be blue.
- Negative binary numbers
- Negative charge
- Negative exponent
- [Negative feedback](279445), a basic concept of cybernetics; it is the basis of regulation and control. It is important in engineering and physiology. In biology and physiology negative feedback is known as homeostasis
- Negative gravity | **Negative** may mean:
- Something negative can be something bad.
- A negative number is a number that is less than zero. 5 - 8 = -3.
- Some people also use _negative_ the same way as "no", or other related words. "Not", "Never", "Nowhere" etc. are all negative words. On two-way radios the word "negative" is used instead of "no" to be clearer.
- In film photography, a _film negative_ is an exposed picture or movie film that has been processed, and is ready to be used to make a print. In a negative, everything in the picture has the opposite color. Things that are white will be black, things that are red will be green, and things that are orange will be blue.
- Negative binary numbers
- Negative charge
- Negative exponent
- Negative feedback, a basic concept of cybernetics; it is the basis of regulation and control. It is important in engineering and physiology. In biology and physiology negative feedback is known as homeostasis
- Negative gravity | high | false | false |
564 | Now | **Now** is the time span between the [past](13989) and the [future](13987). It can be long (like an [eon](23098) in geologic time) or short (like a [picosecond](171277)) but it is almost always used to refer to the span between the present instant to some [time horizon](827) when a [decision](38290) must be made. It can be used to ask or demand that someone make a decision even if they want to delay.
"I want to know what you think, now."
"What do you think now?"
"Now is the time for all good people to come to the aid of their country."
[Mathematics](467) and [measurement](31735) assume that everything used in one [equation](8335) equals the same quantities at the beginning of calculation or axiomatization as at the end. That means it is mathematically correct to say that the idea of "equal" means "equal from the time the process starts to the time it ends." In [General Semantics](2044) and [E Prime](227) the words equal, remain (for the past until **now**) and become (for **now** into the future) replace the [verb](893) "to be" for this reason.
[Algebra](45) is now often called **snapshot algebra** or **algebra of seeing** because of this dependence on time. If any [action](586154) or [event](26349) were possible between steps in algebraic analysis, then, in theory, one would have to start over as if one had no knowledge of the new state at all. For these reasons the idea of [statistics](789) and also [knowledge](411) and knowledge management are sometimes questioned, for instance, in the book _Lies, Damn Lies, and Statistics_. A major issue is the comparing of numbers gathered in the past, and **now**, after some key conditions change. | **Now** is the time span between the past and the future. It can be long (like an eon in geologic time) or short (like a picosecond) but it is almost always used to refer to the span between the present instant to some time horizon when a decision must be made. It can be used to ask or demand that someone make a decision even if they want to delay.
"I want to know what you think, now."
"What do you think now?"
"Now is the time for all good people to come to the aid of their country."
Mathematics and measurement assume that everything used in one equation equals the same quantities at the beginning of calculation or axiomatization as at the end. That means it is mathematically correct to say that the idea of "equal" means "equal from the time the process starts to the time it ends." In General Semantics and E Prime the words equal, remain (for the past until **now**) and become (for **now** into the future) replace the verb "to be" for this reason.
Algebra is now often called **snapshot algebra** or **algebra of seeing** because of this dependence on time. If any action or event were possible between steps in algebraic analysis, then, in theory, one would have to start over as if one had no knowledge of the new state at all. For these reasons the idea of statistics and also knowledge and knowledge management are sometimes questioned, for instance, in the book _Lies, Damn Lies, and Statistics_. A major issue is the comparing of numbers gathered in the past, and **now**, after some key conditions change. | medium | false | false |
566 | New York City | **New York**, often called **New York City** (**NYC**), is the most populous [city](144) in the [U.S. state](342544) of [New York](7469), and the largest city in the [United States](219587). It is at the southern end of the [U.S. state](342544) of [New York](7469). Over 8 million people currently live in the city, and over 22 million people live in the bigger [New York metropolitan area](531780). It is the financial capital of the U.S. because it is home to the nation's [stock market](32544), [Wall Street](278303), and the [World Trade Center](190763).
New York City is on [one of the world's largest natural harbors](276857). It is made up of five [boroughs](649683), each of which is a [county of the state of New York](334199). The five boroughs—[Brooklyn](8934), [Queens](18262), [Manhattan](14317), [the Bronx](14318), and [Staten Island](26903)—were combined into one city in 1898. The city and its metropolitan area are an important place for legal immigration to the United States. As many as 800 languages are spoken in New York, making it the most [linguistically](20194) diverse city in the world. New York has more than 3.2 million people born outside the United States, the biggest foreign-born population of any city in the world as of 2016.
## Infobox (settlement)
- **name**: New York
- **subdivision type**: List of sovereign states, Country
- **settlement type**: City (New York), City
- **named for**: James II of England, James, Duke of York
- **image flag**: Flag of New York City.svg
- **image seal**: Seal of New York City BW.svg
- **image blank emblem**: NYC Logo Wolff Olins.svg
- **blank emblem type**: Wordmark
- **nicknames**: _The Big Apple_, _The City That Never Sleeps (nickname), The City That Never Sleeps_, _Gotham: A History of New York City to 1898, Gotham_, and _Nicknames of New York City, others_
- **map caption**: Interactive map of New York City
- **subdivision type2**: U.S. state, State
- **subdivision type3**: List of regions of the United States, Region
- **subdivision name3**: Mid-Atlantic (United States), Mid-Atlantic
- **subdivision type4**: County (United States), Constituent counties (Boroughs of New York City, boroughs)
- **subdivision name4**: The Bronx, Bronx (The Bronx)
Brooklyn, Kings (Brooklyn)
Manhattan, New York (Manhattan)
Queens, Queens (Queens)
Staten Island, Richmond (Staten Island)
---
- **subdivision type5**: Colony, Historic colonies
- **subdivision name5**: New Netherland
Province of New York
- **established title**: Settled
- **established date**: 1624
- **established title1**: City of Greater New York, Consolidated
- **established date1**: 1898
- **government type**: Strong Mayor, Strong mayor–council
- **governing body**: New York City Council
- **leader title**: Mayor of New York City, Mayor
- **leader name**: Zohran Mamdani (Democratic Party (United States), D)
- **total type**: Total
- **unit pref**: Imperial
- **area total sq mi**: 472.4
- **area land sq mi**: 300.5
- **area water sq mi**: 172.0
- **area total km2**: 1223.6
- **area land km2**: 778.2
- **area water km2**: 445.4
- **area metro sq mi**: 13318
- **elevation m**: 10
- **elevation ft**: 33
- **population rank**: List of United States cities by population, 1st in the United States
List of cities in New York, 1st in New York
- **population as of**: 2020 United States Census, 2020
- **population total**: 8804190
- **population metro**: 20,140,470 (List of metropolitan statistical areas, 1st)
- **population density sq mi**: 29303.2
- **population density km2**: 11314.0
- **population demonym**: New Yorker
- **blank6 name**: GDP (City, 2019)
- **blank6 info**: $884 billion (1st)
- **blank7 name**: Gross metropolitan product, GMP (Metro, 2020)
- **blank7 info**: $1.67 trillion (1st)
- **postal code type**: ZIP Codes
- **postal code**: 100xx–104xx, 11004–05, 111xx–114xx, 116xx
- **area code**: Area codes 212, 646, and 332, 212/646/332, Area codes 718, 347, and 929, 718/347/929, Area code 917, 917
- **blank name**: Federal Information Processing Standards, FIPS code
- **blank info**: 36-51000
- **blank1 name**: Geographic Names Information System, GNIS feature ID
- **blank1 info**: 975772
- **blank2 name**: Major airports
- **blank2 info**: John F. Kennedy International Airport, JFK Airport
Newark Liberty International Airport, Newark Liberty Airport
LaGuardia Airport
Islip Airport
White Plains Airport
Stewart International Airport, Stewart Airport
- **blank4 name**: Commuter rail
- **blank4 info**: LIRR, Metro-North, NJ Transit Rail Operations, NJ Transit
- **blank5 name**: Rapid transit
- **blank5 info**:
- **blank name sec2**: Largest Boroughs of New York City, borough by area
- **blank info sec2**: Queens ()
- **blank1 name sec2**: Largest borough by population
- **blank1 info sec2**: Brooklyn (2020 census: 2,736,074)
- **blank2 name sec2**: Largest borough by GDP (2019)
- **blank2 info sec2**: Manhattan ($635.3 billion)
- **utc offset1**: −05:00
- **utc offset1 dst**: −04:00
- **timezone1**: Eastern Time Zone, EST
- **timezone1 dst**: Eastern Time Zone, EDT | **New York**, often called **New York City** (**NYC**), is the most populous city in the U.S. state of New York, and the largest city in the United States. It is at the southern end of the U.S. state of New York. Over 8 million people currently live in the city, and over 22 million people live in the bigger New York metropolitan area. It is the financial capital of the U.S. because it is home to the nation's stock market, Wall Street, and the World Trade Center.
New York City is on one of the world's largest natural harbors. It is made up of five boroughs, each of which is a county of the state of New York. The five boroughs—Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, the Bronx, and Staten Island—were combined into one city in 1898. The city and its metropolitan area are an important place for legal immigration to the United States. As many as 800 languages are spoken in New York, making it the most linguistically diverse city in the world. New York has more than 3.2 million people born outside the United States, the biggest foreign-born population of any city in the world as of 2016.
## Infobox (settlement)
- **name**: New York
- **subdivision type**: List of sovereign states, Country
- **settlement type**: City (New York), City
- **named for**: James II of England, James, Duke of York
- **image flag**: Flag of New York City.svg
- **image seal**: Seal of New York City BW.svg
- **image blank emblem**: NYC Logo Wolff Olins.svg
- **blank emblem type**: Wordmark
- **nicknames**: _The Big Apple_, _The City That Never Sleeps (nickname), The City That Never Sleeps_, _Gotham: A History of New York City to 1898, Gotham_, and _Nicknames of New York City, others_
- **map caption**: Interactive map of New York City
- **subdivision type2**: U.S. state, State
- **subdivision type3**: List of regions of the United States, Region
- **subdivision name3**: Mid-Atlantic (United States), Mid-Atlantic
- **subdivision type4**: County (United States), Constituent counties (Boroughs of New York City, boroughs)
- **subdivision name4**: The Bronx, Bronx (The Bronx)
Brooklyn, Kings (Brooklyn)
Manhattan, New York (Manhattan)
Queens, Queens (Queens)
Staten Island, Richmond (Staten Island)
---
- **subdivision type5**: Colony, Historic colonies
- **subdivision name5**: New Netherland
Province of New York
- **established title**: Settled
- **established date**: 1624
- **established title1**: City of Greater New York, Consolidated
- **established date1**: 1898
- **government type**: Strong Mayor, Strong mayor–council
- **governing body**: New York City Council
- **leader title**: Mayor of New York City, Mayor
- **leader name**: Zohran Mamdani (Democratic Party (United States), D)
- **total type**: Total
- **unit pref**: Imperial
- **area total sq mi**: 472.4
- **area land sq mi**: 300.5
- **area water sq mi**: 172.0
- **area total km2**: 1223.6
- **area land km2**: 778.2
- **area water km2**: 445.4
- **area metro sq mi**: 13318
- **elevation m**: 10
- **elevation ft**: 33
- **population rank**: List of United States cities by population, 1st in the United States
List of cities in New York, 1st in New York
- **population as of**: 2020 United States Census, 2020
- **population total**: 8804190
- **population metro**: 20,140,470 (List of metropolitan statistical areas, 1st)
- **population density sq mi**: 29303.2
- **population density km2**: 11314.0
- **population demonym**: New Yorker
- **blank6 name**: GDP (City, 2019)
- **blank6 info**: $884 billion (1st)
- **blank7 name**: Gross metropolitan product, GMP (Metro, 2020)
- **blank7 info**: $1.67 trillion (1st)
- **postal code type**: ZIP Codes
- **postal code**: 100xx–104xx, 11004–05, 111xx–114xx, 116xx
- **area code**: Area codes 212, 646, and 332, 212/646/332, Area codes 718, 347, and 929, 718/347/929, Area code 917, 917
- **blank name**: Federal Information Processing Standards, FIPS code
- **blank info**: 36-51000
- **blank1 name**: Geographic Names Information System, GNIS feature ID
- **blank1 info**: 975772
- **blank2 name**: Major airports
- **blank2 info**: John F. Kennedy International Airport, JFK Airport
Newark Liberty International Airport, Newark Liberty Airport
LaGuardia Airport
Islip Airport
White Plains Airport
Stewart International Airport, Stewart Airport
- **blank4 name**: Commuter rail
- **blank4 info**: LIRR, Metro-North, NJ Transit Rail Operations, NJ Transit
- **blank5 name**: Rapid transit
- **blank5 info**:
- **blank name sec2**: Largest Boroughs of New York City, borough by area
- **blank info sec2**: Queens ()
- **blank1 name sec2**: Largest borough by population
- **blank1 info sec2**: Brooklyn (2020 census: 2,736,074)
- **blank2 name sec2**: Largest borough by GDP (2019)
- **blank2 info sec2**: Manhattan ($635.3 billion)
- **utc offset1**: −05:00
- **utc offset1 dst**: −04:00
- **timezone1**: Eastern Time Zone, EST
- **timezone1 dst**: Eastern Time Zone, EDT | high | true | false |
569 | October | **October** (Oct.) is the tenth [month](3641) of the [year](944) in the [Gregorian calendar](12159), coming between [September](684) and [November](530). It has 31 [day](3539)s. The name comes from the [Latin](6592) _octo_ for "eight". It was the eighth month of the year before [January](400) and [February](262) were added to the beginning of the year.
October begins on the same day of the week as [January](400) in [common year](3974)s, but does not begin on the same day of the week as any other month in [leap year](434)s. October always ends on the same day of the week as [February](262), and additionally, [January](400) in [common year](3974)s.
## The Month
October is the tenth month of the year in the [Gregorian calendar](12159), coming after [September](684) and before [November](530). It has 31 days. Its name comes from Latin _octo_, meaning eight, as it was the eighth month of the year in the Old Roman Calendar before [January](400) and [February](262) were added to the beginning of the year, though its name did not change. The tenth month at the time was [December](185).
October is an [Autumn](18860) (Fall) month in the [Northern Hemisphere](6829) and a [Spring](16382) month in the [Southern Hemisphere](12161). In each [Hemisphere](31981), it is the [season](6276)al equivalent of [April](1) in the other.
October begins on the same day of the week as [January](400) in [common year](3974)s, but no other month in confusion years and [leap year](434)s begins on the same day of the week as October. October ends on the same day of the [week](3935) as [January](400) in [common year](3974)s and [February](262) every year, as each other's last days are 39 weeks (273 days) and 35 weeks (245 days) apart respectively.
In common years, October starts on the same day of the week as [May](469) of the previous year, and in leap years, [August](2) of the previous year. In common years, October finishes on the same day of the week as May of the previous year, and in leap years, August and [November](530) of the previous year.
In years immediately before common years, October starts on the same day of the week as [April](1) and [July](402) of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, [September](684) and [December](185) of the following year. In years immediately before common years, October finishes on the same day of the week as [July](402) of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, April and December of the following year.
October is the month of the [Rosary](133573) devotion.
[October 31](8341)/[November 1](8437) is [Samhain](568934) in old Pagan tradition. Several current observances at this time are believed to be related to it. They are: [Halloween](7460) ([October 31](8341)) in many western traditions, All Saints Day ([November 1](8437)), All Souls Day ([November 2](9927)), and the Day of the Dead ([October 31](8341) to [November 2](9927)), which is celebrated in [Mexico](1935).
### Fixed Observances
- [October 1](9945) – National Day of the [People's Republic of China](600)
- [October 1](9945) – Independence Day ([Nigeria](34325))
- [October 1](9945) – National Day ([Cyprus](4097))
- [October 1](9945) – Independence Day ([Tuvalu](4648))
- [October 1](9945) – Independence Day ([Palau](27481))
- [October 1](9945) – International Day of Older Persons
- [October 2](9659) – [Gandhi](3576) Jayanthi ([India](391))
- [October 2](9659) – Guardian Angels Day
- [October 2](9659) – International Day of Non-Violence, birthday of [Mahatma Gandhi](3576)
- [October 2](9659) – Independence Day ([Guinea](14166))
- [October 3](9944) – Unity Day ([Germany](219828))
- [October 3](9944) – Foundation Day ([South Korea](5073))
- [October 4](7555) – Saint Francis of Assisi (Roman Catholicism)
- [October 4](7555) – Independence Day ([Lesotho](14546))
- [October 4](7555) – World [Animal](62) Day
- [October 5](9943) – Republic Day ([Portugal](3466))
- [October 5](9943) – International World [Teacher](20316)s' Day
- [October 6](9942) – Armed Forces Day ([Egypt](248))
- [October 7](9941) – Feast of Our Lady of the [Rosary](133573)
- [October 8](8764) – Independence Day ([Croatia](11521))
- [October 9](9940) – [Leif Erikson](61984) Day
- [October 9](9940) – Independence Day ([Uganda](15518))
- [October 10](10067) – National Day in the Republic of China ([Taiwan](833))
- [October 10](10067) – Independence Day ([Fiji](10005))
- [October 11](10068) – National Coming Out Day ([United States](219587))
- [October 12](7873) – National Day of [Spain](219832)
- [October 12](7873) – Independence Day ([Equatorial Guinea](19180))
- [October 16](9808) – World [Food](280) Day
- [October 18](10078) – Feast of [Saint Luke the Evangelist](62303)
- [October 18](10078) – [Alaska](3361) Day
- [October 19](10077) – [Constitution](173) Day ([Niue](27174))
- [October 21](4931) – [Apple](39) Day
- [October 21](4931) – Trafalgar Day ([United Kingdom](856))
- [October 23](10069) – Remembrance of the Hungarian Revolution ([Hungary](3462))
- [October 23](10069) – Chulalongkorn Day ([Thailand](10138))
- [October 24](7560) – [United Nations](4549) Day
- [October 24](7560) – Independence Day ([Zambia](15643))
- [October 25](5154) – Day of the [Romania](2124)n [Army](2115)
- [October 25](5154) – Day of the [Basque Country](688255)
- [October 25](5154) – Constitution Day ([Lithuania](4099))
- [October 25](5154) – Republic Day ([Kazakhstan](11232))
- [October 26](10070) – National Day of [Austria](55)
- [October 27](10072) – Independence Day ([Saint Vincent and the Grenadines](18322))
- [October 27](10072) – Independence Day ([Turkmenistan](20205))
- [October 29](10073) – [Republic](4978) Day ([Turkey](2860))
- [October 31](8341) – [Nevada](11442) Day
- [October 31](8341) – [Protestant Reformation](25730) Day
- [October 31](8341) – [Halloween](7460)
- [October 31](8341)/[November 1](8437) – [Samhain](568934) (an approximate date)
- [October 31](8341) to [November 2](9927) – Day of the Dead ([Mexico](1935))
### Moveable Events
- [Jewish](219593) New Year, [September](684)/October
- [Munich](2917) [Oktoberfest](21816), runs from mid-[September](684) until around [October 3](9944)
- The Summer Paralympics have often taken place in this month.
- The [Nobel Prize](6494) winners of the year are announced in October
- [Northern Hemisphere](6829): [Harvest](5983) festivals take place around this time.
- Second [Monday](4010) in October:
- Thanksgiving Day in [Canada](219589)
- [Health](325) and [Sport](699)s Day in [Japan](403)
- Columbus Day in the [United States](219587)
- Divali ([Hinduism](5961)), takes place in October or [November](530)
- Last [Sunday](3837) in October: End of [Daylight saving time](42899) in the EU; clocks are turned back one hour.
## Selection of Historical Events
- [October 1](9945), [1890](7803) – [Yosemite National Park](175864) is created by [United States Congress](17795).
- [October 1](9945), [1946](8917) – The [Nuremberg](32640) Trials of leading Nazis ends.
- [October 1](9945), [1949](7183) – The [People's Republic of China](600) is declared by [Mao Zedong](15362).
- [October 1](9945), [1960](8426) – [Nigeria](34325) becomes independent.
- [October 1](9945), [1961](8336) – British and French [Cameroon](19285) merge.
- [October 1](9945), [1978](2998) – [Tuvalu](4648) becomes independent.
- [October 1](9945), [1994](3960) – [Palau](27481) becomes independent from a UN Trusteeship, though remains dependent on [US](720016) aid.
- [October 2](9659), [1958](9203) – [Guinea](14166) declares independence.
- [October 3](9944), [1932](7463) – The Kingdom of Iraq is formed.
- [October 3](9944), [1990](8905) – [Germany](219828) is officially re-united.
- [October 4](7555), [1957](9559) – The [Soviet Union](3600) launches the [Sputnik 1](202009) probe into orbit.
- [October 4](7555), [1966](9560) – [Lesotho](14546) becomes independent.
- [October 5](9943), [1910](15082) – [Portugal](3466) becomes a [Republic](4978).
- [October 6](9942), [1860](16051) – The Introduction of the so-called [Section 377 of the British Indian penal code (Law)](919485) was enacted in **British India** respectively.
- [October 6](9942), [1973](8445) – The [Yom Kippur](201173) war begins as [Egypt](248) and [Syria](6193) launch an attack on [Israel](64543).
- [October 6](9942), [1981](5168) – [President](4044) of [Egypt](248) [Anwar Sadat](276027) is shot dead at a [military](3516) parade.
- [October 6](9942), [1987](9118) – [Fiji](10005) becomes a [Republic](4978).
- [October 7](9941), [1949](7183) – [East Germany](8398) is founded.
- [October 9](9940), [1962](8737) – [Uganda](15518) becomes independent.
- [October 10](10067), [1780](20446) – The [Great Hurricane of 1780](198729) kills 20,000 to 30,000 people in the [Caribbean](15218).
- [October 10](10067), [1928](8092) – [Chiang Kai-shek](34679) becomes leader of the Republic of China.
- [October 10](10067), [1970](4941) – [Fiji](10005) becomes independent.
- [October 10](10067), [2010](14361) – The [Netherlands Antilles](17932) are split up.
- [October 12](7873), [1492](9455) – [Christopher Columbus](4635) reaches the [Caribbean](15218).
- [October 12](7873), [1871](4626) – The Introduction of the so-called [Criminal Tribes Act](881116) was an enacted extension in **British India** respectively.
- [October 12](7873), [1968](8340) – [Equatorial Guinea](19180) becomes independent.
- [October 12](7873), [1999](3955) – The [population](4037) of the world is said to have officially reached six [billion](467299).
- [October 13](10076), [2010](14361) – Successful rescue of 69 [miners](6663) trapped underground near Copiapo, [Chile](4008).
- [October 14](7788), [1066](11672) – The [Battle of Hastings](34052) results in [William the Conqueror](5568) taking over [England](3047).
- [October 14](7788), [1964](9255) – Martin Luther King, Jr. wins the Nobel Peace Prize.
- [October 14](7788), [1981](5168) – [Hosni Mubarak](20682) becomes [President](4044) of [Egypt](248).
- [October 14](7788), [1991](3963) – [Aung San Suu Kyi](108253) wins the Nobel Peace Prize.
- [October 15](10075), [1917](11700) – Dutch exotic dancer [Mata Hari](59320) is [executed](257) for [espionage](55353) in [France](291).
- [October 16](9808), [1582](15298) – [Spain](219832), [Portugal](3466), [Italy](363) and [Poland](3045) switch from the [Julian calendar](12158) to the [Gregorian calendar](12159).
- [October 16](9808), [1978](2998) – [Pope John Paul II](8047) becomes [Pope](4681), remaining in this position until [2005](3964).
- [October 17](9820), [1989](3967) – The Loma Prieta [earthquake](2081) strikes the [San Francisco](11481) Bay Area.
- [October 18](10078), [1867](12522) – [Alaska](3361) officially changes from [Russia](2964)n to [US](720016) control.
- [October 18](10078), [1898](9995) – The [US](720016) takes control of [Puerto Rico](12383).
- [October 18](10078), [1989](3967) – Leader of [East Germany](8398) [Erich Honecker](82645) resigns.
- [October 20](10071), [1973](8445) – [Sydney Opera House](57336) in [Sydney](4743), [Australia](27), is officially opened.
- [October 20](10071), [2011](31950) – 2011 Libyan civil war: Colonel [Muammar al-Gaddafi](302724) is killed.
- [October 21](4931), [1805](10991) – The [naval](5818) [Battle of Trafalgar](15196) ends in British victory, although [Admiral](224383) [Horatio Nelson](51758) is killed.
- [October 22](10074), [1962](8737) – The [Cuban Missile Crisis](64390) begins.
- [October 23](10069), [1956](8427) – The [Hungarian](3462) Uprising begins.
- [October 24](7560), [1945](4629) – The UN is officially founded.
- [October 24](7560), [1964](9255) – [Zambia](15643) becomes independent.
- [October 26](10070), [1905](11699) – [Norway](3460) becomes independent from [Sweden](2136).
- [October 26](10070), [1955](9230) – [Austria](55) declares 'Permanent [Neutral](556169)ity'.
- [October 27](10072), [1962](8737) – The [Cuban Missile Crisis](64390) ends.
- [October 27](10072), [1979](7474) – [Saint Vincent and the Grenadines](18322) becomes independent.
- [October 27](10072), [1991](3963) – [Turkmenistan](20205) becomes independent from the [Soviet Union](3600).
- [October 28](8765), [1886](12120) – The [Statue of Liberty](7549) is officially dedicated near [New York City](566), as a gift to the [United States](219587) from [France](291).
- [October 29](10073), [1923](9217) – The [Republic](4978) of [Turkey](2860) is officially declared by [Mustafa Kemal Atatürk](31913).
- [October 29](10073), [1929](2897) – The [Wall Street](278303) crash occurs, starting the [Great Depression](22100).
- [October 29](10073), [1998](3956) – [Hurricane Mitch](175887) causes much destruction in [Central America](3596).
- [October 31](8341), [1517](20384) – [Protestant Reformation](25730): [Martin Luther](4980) is believed to have nailed his 95 theses to Wittenberg Castle Church in [Germany](219828) on this date.
- [October 31](8341), [1984](9264) – [Prime Minister](3598) of [India](391) [Indira Gandhi](21615) is shot dead by two [Sikh](21592) security guards. Riots against the Sikh [population](4037) start soon after.
- [October 31](8341), [2011](31950) – The [population](4037) of the world is said to have officially reached seven [billion](467299) on this date.
## Trivia
- October has the 300th day of the year. October 27 in a common year, October 26 in a leap year.
- Because [Daylight Saving Time](42899) ends in October in some Northern Hemisphere countries, it is sometimes seen as the "longest" month there.
- In a [common year](3974), [October 31](8341) falls on the same day of the week as [February 28](9849) while in a [leap year](434), it falls on the same day of the week as [February 29](10114).
- [October 1](9945) is the only day in October to start within the third quarter of the [calendar](7517) year.
- This month is tied with [November](530) as the months with the most births of [US Presidents](7174) as of January 20, 2021: with six - [Jimmy Carter](7683) ([October 1](9945)), [Rutherford B. Hayes](16591) ([October 4](7555)), [Chester A. Arthur](15440) ([October 5](9943)), [Dwight D. Eisenhower](7693) ([October 14](7788)), [Theodore Roosevelt](7685) ([October 27](10072)) and [John Adams](5423) ([October 30](9795)).
- October's [flower](7947) is the Calendula.
- One of October's birthstones is the [opal](64457). The meaning of the opal is hope. The other birthstone of October is the pink tourmaline.
- The [astrological](29179) signs for October are [Libra](68091) ([September 22](10059) to [October 21](4931)) and [Scorpio](647409) ([October 22](10074) to [November 21](10085)).
## Other websites
- [Octobre in easy French](http://scratchpad.wikia.com/wiki/Octobre) | **October** (Oct.) is the tenth month of the year in the Gregorian calendar, coming between September and November. It has 31 days. The name comes from the Latin _octo_ for "eight". It was the eighth month of the year before January and February were added to the beginning of the year.
October begins on the same day of the week as January in common years, but does not begin on the same day of the week as any other month in leap years. October always ends on the same day of the week as February, and additionally, January in common years.
## The Month
October is the tenth month of the year in the Gregorian calendar, coming after September and before November. It has 31 days. Its name comes from Latin _octo_, meaning eight, as it was the eighth month of the year in the Old Roman Calendar before January and February were added to the beginning of the year, though its name did not change. The tenth month at the time was December.
October is an Autumn (Fall) month in the Northern Hemisphere and a Spring month in the Southern Hemisphere. In each Hemisphere, it is the seasonal equivalent of April in the other.
October begins on the same day of the week as January in common years, but no other month in confusion years and leap years begins on the same day of the week as October. October ends on the same day of the week as January in common years and February every year, as each other's last days are 39 weeks (273 days) and 35 weeks (245 days) apart respectively.
In common years, October starts on the same day of the week as May of the previous year, and in leap years, August of the previous year. In common years, October finishes on the same day of the week as May of the previous year, and in leap years, August and November of the previous year.
In years immediately before common years, October starts on the same day of the week as April and July of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, September and December of the following year. In years immediately before common years, October finishes on the same day of the week as July of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, April and December of the following year.
October is the month of the Rosary devotion.
October 31/November 1 is Samhain in old Pagan tradition. Several current observances at this time are believed to be related to it. They are: Halloween (October 31) in many western traditions, All Saints Day (November 1), All Souls Day (November 2), and the Day of the Dead (October 31 to November 2), which is celebrated in Mexico.
### Fixed Observances
- October 1 – National Day of the People's Republic of China
- October 1 – Independence Day (Nigeria)
- October 1 – National Day (Cyprus)
- October 1 – Independence Day (Tuvalu)
- October 1 – Independence Day (Palau)
- October 1 – International Day of Older Persons
- October 2 – Gandhi Jayanthi (India)
- October 2 – Guardian Angels Day
- October 2 – International Day of Non-Violence, birthday of Mahatma Gandhi
- October 2 – Independence Day (Guinea)
- October 3 – Unity Day (Germany)
- October 3 – Foundation Day (South Korea)
- October 4 – Saint Francis of Assisi (Roman Catholicism)
- October 4 – Independence Day (Lesotho)
- October 4 – World Animal Day
- October 5 – Republic Day (Portugal)
- October 5 – International World Teachers' Day
- October 6 – Armed Forces Day (Egypt)
- October 7 – Feast of Our Lady of the Rosary
- October 8 – Independence Day (Croatia)
- October 9 – Leif Erikson Day
- October 9 – Independence Day (Uganda)
- October 10 – National Day in the Republic of China (Taiwan)
- October 10 – Independence Day (Fiji)
- October 11 – National Coming Out Day (United States)
- October 12 – National Day of Spain
- October 12 – Independence Day (Equatorial Guinea)
- October 16 – World Food Day
- October 18 – Feast of Saint Luke the Evangelist
- October 18 – Alaska Day
- October 19 – Constitution Day (Niue)
- October 21 – Apple Day
- October 21 – Trafalgar Day (United Kingdom)
- October 23 – Remembrance of the Hungarian Revolution (Hungary)
- October 23 – Chulalongkorn Day (Thailand)
- October 24 – United Nations Day
- October 24 – Independence Day (Zambia)
- October 25 – Day of the Romanian Army
- October 25 – Day of the Basque Country
- October 25 – Constitution Day (Lithuania)
- October 25 – Republic Day (Kazakhstan)
- October 26 – National Day of Austria
- October 27 – Independence Day (Saint Vincent and the Grenadines)
- October 27 – Independence Day (Turkmenistan)
- October 29 – Republic Day (Turkey)
- October 31 – Nevada Day
- October 31 – Protestant Reformation Day
- October 31 – Halloween
- October 31/November 1 – Samhain (an approximate date)
- October 31 to November 2 – Day of the Dead (Mexico)
### Moveable Events
- Jewish New Year, September/October
- Munich Oktoberfest, runs from mid-September until around October 3
- The Summer Paralympics have often taken place in this month.
- The Nobel Prize winners of the year are announced in October
- Northern Hemisphere: Harvest festivals take place around this time.
- Second Monday in October:
- Thanksgiving Day in Canada
- Health and Sports Day in Japan
- Columbus Day in the United States
- Divali (Hinduism), takes place in October or November
- Last Sunday in October: End of Daylight saving time in the EU; clocks are turned back one hour.
## Selection of Historical Events
- October 1, 1890 – Yosemite National Park is created by United States Congress.
- October 1, 1946 – The Nuremberg Trials of leading Nazis ends.
- October 1, 1949 – The People's Republic of China is declared by Mao Zedong.
- October 1, 1960 – Nigeria becomes independent.
- October 1, 1961 – British and French Cameroon merge.
- October 1, 1978 – Tuvalu becomes independent.
- October 1, 1994 – Palau becomes independent from a UN Trusteeship, though remains dependent on US aid.
- October 2, 1958 – Guinea declares independence.
- October 3, 1932 – The Kingdom of Iraq is formed.
- October 3, 1990 – Germany is officially re-united.
- October 4, 1957 – The Soviet Union launches the Sputnik 1 probe into orbit.
- October 4, 1966 – Lesotho becomes independent.
- October 5, 1910 – Portugal becomes a Republic.
- October 6, 1860 – The Introduction of the so-called Section 377 of the British Indian penal code (Law) was enacted in **British India** respectively.
- October 6, 1973 – The Yom Kippur war begins as Egypt and Syria launch an attack on Israel.
- October 6, 1981 – President of Egypt Anwar Sadat is shot dead at a military parade.
- October 6, 1987 – Fiji becomes a Republic.
- October 7, 1949 – East Germany is founded.
- October 9, 1962 – Uganda becomes independent.
- October 10, 1780 – The Great Hurricane of 1780 kills 20,000 to 30,000 people in the Caribbean.
- October 10, 1928 – Chiang Kai-shek becomes leader of the Republic of China.
- October 10, 1970 – Fiji becomes independent.
- October 10, 2010 – The Netherlands Antilles are split up.
- October 12, 1492 – Christopher Columbus reaches the Caribbean.
- October 12, 1871 – The Introduction of the so-called Criminal Tribes Act was an enacted extension in **British India** respectively.
- October 12, 1968 – Equatorial Guinea becomes independent.
- October 12, 1999 – The population of the world is said to have officially reached six billion.
- October 13, 2010 – Successful rescue of 69 miners trapped underground near Copiapo, Chile.
- October 14, 1066 – The Battle of Hastings results in William the Conqueror taking over England.
- October 14, 1964 – Martin Luther King, Jr. wins the Nobel Peace Prize.
- October 14, 1981 – Hosni Mubarak becomes President of Egypt.
- October 14, 1991 – Aung San Suu Kyi wins the Nobel Peace Prize.
- October 15, 1917 – Dutch exotic dancer Mata Hari is executed for espionage in France.
- October 16, 1582 – Spain, Portugal, Italy and Poland switch from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian calendar.
- October 16, 1978 – Pope John Paul II becomes Pope, remaining in this position until 2005.
- October 17, 1989 – The Loma Prieta earthquake strikes the San Francisco Bay Area.
- October 18, 1867 – Alaska officially changes from Russian to US control.
- October 18, 1898 – The US takes control of Puerto Rico.
- October 18, 1989 – Leader of East Germany Erich Honecker resigns.
- October 20, 1973 – Sydney Opera House in Sydney, Australia, is officially opened.
- October 20, 2011 – 2011 Libyan civil war: Colonel Muammar al-Gaddafi is killed.
- October 21, 1805 – The naval Battle of Trafalgar ends in British victory, although Admiral Horatio Nelson is killed.
- October 22, 1962 – The Cuban Missile Crisis begins.
- October 23, 1956 – The Hungarian Uprising begins.
- October 24, 1945 – The UN is officially founded.
- October 24, 1964 – Zambia becomes independent.
- October 26, 1905 – Norway becomes independent from Sweden.
- October 26, 1955 – Austria declares 'Permanent Neutrality'.
- October 27, 1962 – The Cuban Missile Crisis ends.
- October 27, 1979 – Saint Vincent and the Grenadines becomes independent.
- October 27, 1991 – Turkmenistan becomes independent from the Soviet Union.
- October 28, 1886 – The Statue of Liberty is officially dedicated near New York City, as a gift to the United States from France.
- October 29, 1923 – The Republic of Turkey is officially declared by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk.
- October 29, 1929 – The Wall Street crash occurs, starting the Great Depression.
- October 29, 1998 – Hurricane Mitch causes much destruction in Central America.
- October 31, 1517 – Protestant Reformation: Martin Luther is believed to have nailed his 95 theses to Wittenberg Castle Church in Germany on this date.
- October 31, 1984 – Prime Minister of India Indira Gandhi is shot dead by two Sikh security guards. Riots against the Sikh population start soon after.
- October 31, 2011 – The population of the world is said to have officially reached seven billion on this date.
## Trivia
- October has the 300th day of the year. October 27 in a common year, October 26 in a leap year.
- Because Daylight Saving Time ends in October in some Northern Hemisphere countries, it is sometimes seen as the "longest" month there.
- In a common year, October 31 falls on the same day of the week as February 28 while in a leap year, it falls on the same day of the week as February 29.
- October 1 is the only day in October to start within the third quarter of the calendar year.
- This month is tied with November as the months with the most births of US Presidents as of January 20, 2021: with six - Jimmy Carter (October 1), Rutherford B. Hayes (October 4), Chester A. Arthur (October 5), Dwight D. Eisenhower (October 14), Theodore Roosevelt (October 27) and John Adams (October 30).
- October's flower is the Calendula.
- One of October's birthstones is the opal. The meaning of the opal is hope. The other birthstone of October is the pink tourmaline.
- The astrological signs for October are Libra (September 22 to October 21) and Scorpio (October 22 to November 21).
## Other websites
- Octobre in easy French | high | false | false |
570 | Of | **Of** is a [preposition](3826) used in the [English language](2843) to show a possessive relationship. For example, the phrase "book of maps" means that the book has maps. The phrase "father of Mike" means the father belongs to Mike. | **Of** is a preposition used in the English language to show a possessive relationship. For example, the phrase "book of maps" means that the book has maps. The phrase "father of Mike" means the father belongs to Mike. | high | false | false |
571 | 1 (number) | **One** (**1**) is the first natural number, followed by [two](65079), then followed by [three](5489). The Roman numeral for one is **I**.
## Mathematics
In [mathematics](467), the number one is the [multiplicative identity](710114). It is also the only number for which these special facts are true:
- Any number multiplied by one equals that number: . For example, .
- Any number divided by one equals that number: . For example, .
- Any number , except zero, divided by itself equals one: . For example:
In mathematics, [0.999...](267811) is a [repeating decimal](533862) that is equal to 1. Many [proofs](92898) have been made to show this is correct.
## Computer science
One is important for [computer science](110), because the [binary](45444) numeral system uses only ones and zeroes to represent numbers. In [machine code](3925) and many [programming language](6362)s, one means "true" (or "yes") and zero means "false" (or "no").
## Other meanings
- In [Germany](219828) and [Austria](55), one is the grade for "very good". It is the best grade of six possible grades in Germany, and the best of five possible grades in Austria. In the [Netherlands](3463), one is the lowest grade, and ten the highest. In [Poland](3045), one is also the lowest grade, and the highest is six.
- In [numerology](813201), the number one is a symbol for everything (unity), the beginning, and [God](305).
## Related pages
- Zero
- [Mathematical constant](12427)
## Infobox (number)
- **number**: 1
- **numeral**: Unary numeral system, unary
- **cardinal**: one, unit, unity
- **factorization**: 1
- **divisor**: 1
- **roman unicode**: Ⅰ, ⅰ
- **greek prefix**: Wiktionary:mono-, mono- /Wiktionary:haplo-, haplo-
- **latin prefix**: Wiktionary:uni-, uni-
- **lang1**: Greek numeral
- **lang1 symbol**: α'
- **lang2**: Persian language, Persian
- **lang3**: Eastern Arabic numerals, Arabic
- **lang4**: Urdu
- **lang5**: Ge'ez alphabet, Ge'ez
- **lang5 symbol**: ፩
- **lang6**: Bengali language, Bengali & Assamese language, Assamese
- **lang7**: Chinese numeral
- **lang7 symbol**: 一，弌，壹
- **lang8**: Korean language, Korean
- **lang8 symbol**: 일, 하나
- **lang9**: Devanāgarī
- **lang10**: Telugu language, Telugu
- **lang11**: Tamil language, Tamil
- **lang12**: Kannada language, Kannada
- **lang13**: Hebrew numerals, Hebrew
- **lang13 symbol**: (aleph, alef)
- **lang14**: Khmer numerals, Khmer
- **lang14 symbol**: ១
- **lang15**: Thai numerals, Thai
- **lang15 symbol**: ๑
- **lang16**: Malayalam
- **lang16 symbol**: ൧
- **lang17**: Counting rods, Counting rod
- **lang17 symbol**: 𝍠 | **One** (**1**) is the first natural number, followed by two, then followed by three. The Roman numeral for one is **I**.
## Mathematics
In mathematics, the number one is the multiplicative identity. It is also the only number for which these special facts are true:
- Any number multiplied by one equals that number: . For example, .
- Any number divided by one equals that number: . For example, .
- Any number , except zero, divided by itself equals one: . For example:
In mathematics, 0.999... is a repeating decimal that is equal to 1. Many proofs have been made to show this is correct.
## Computer science
One is important for computer science, because the binary numeral system uses only ones and zeroes to represent numbers. In machine code and many programming languages, one means "true" (or "yes") and zero means "false" (or "no").
## Other meanings
- In Germany and Austria, one is the grade for "very good". It is the best grade of six possible grades in Germany, and the best of five possible grades in Austria. In the Netherlands, one is the lowest grade, and ten the highest. In Poland, one is also the lowest grade, and the highest is six.
- In numerology, the number one is a symbol for everything (unity), the beginning, and God.
## Related pages
- Zero
- Mathematical constant
## Infobox (number)
- **number**: 1
- **numeral**: Unary numeral system, unary
- **cardinal**: one, unit, unity
- **factorization**: 1
- **divisor**: 1
- **roman unicode**: Ⅰ, ⅰ
- **greek prefix**: Wiktionary:mono-, mono- /Wiktionary:haplo-, haplo-
- **latin prefix**: Wiktionary:uni-, uni-
- **lang1**: Greek numeral
- **lang1 symbol**: α'
- **lang2**: Persian language, Persian
- **lang3**: Eastern Arabic numerals, Arabic
- **lang4**: Urdu
- **lang5**: Ge'ez alphabet, Ge'ez
- **lang5 symbol**: ፩
- **lang6**: Bengali language, Bengali & Assamese language, Assamese
- **lang7**: Chinese numeral
- **lang7 symbol**: 一，弌，壹
- **lang8**: Korean language, Korean
- **lang8 symbol**: 일, 하나
- **lang9**: Devanāgarī
- **lang10**: Telugu language, Telugu
- **lang11**: Tamil language, Tamil
- **lang12**: Kannada language, Kannada
- **lang13**: Hebrew numerals, Hebrew
- **lang13 symbol**: (aleph, alef)
- **lang14**: Khmer numerals, Khmer
- **lang14 symbol**: ១
- **lang15**: Thai numerals, Thai
- **lang15 symbol**: ๑
- **lang16**: Malayalam
- **lang16 symbol**: ൧
- **lang17**: Counting rods, Counting rod
- **lang17 symbol**: 𝍠 | high | false | false |
572 | O Canada | "**O Canada**" () is the [national anthem](533) of [Canada](219589). [Calixa Lavallée](105281) wrote the music, and Adolphe-Basile Routhier wrote the words in French. It was first sung in French in 1880. [Robert Stanley Weir](762774) wrote the English words for the song, which are not a translation of the French lyrics, in 1908.
It was sung as the national anthem for many years before the government made it official on 1 July ([Canada Day](222415)) in 1980.
"O Canada" has been translated into many languages. Some of these languages are spoken by people living in Canada, but they trace their roots in other parts of the globe. These languages include [Chinese](949), [Japanese](3937), [German](3346), [Spanish](6432), [Italian](8249), [Punjabi](21590), [Russian](2991), and [Ukrainian](34087). The song has also been translated into indigenous languages (languages spoken by First Nations), such as [Inuktitut](18063), [Ojibwe](714453), [Cree](699015), and [Mi'kmaq](105675).
### English lyrics
|[English](2843) original|[Simple English](222712) translation|
| --- | --- |
|<poem>O Canada! Our home and native land, True patriot love in all of us command! With glowing hearts we see thee rise The True North strong and free, From far and wide, O Canada, We stand on guard for thee. God keep our land glorious and free! O Canada, we stand on guard for thee; O Canada, we stand on guard for thee.</poem>|<poem></poem>|
### French lyrics
|[French](3597) original|[IPA](52427) transcription|English translation|
| --- | --- | --- |
|<poem>Ô Canada! Terre de nos aïeux, Ton front est ceint de fleurons glorieux! Car ton bras sait porter l'épée, Il sait porter la croix! Ton histoire est une épopée Des plus brillants exploits. Et ta valeur, de foi trempée, 𝄆 Protégera nos foyers et nos droits. 𝄇</poem>|<poem>[o kanada] [tɛ.ʁə də nɔ.z‿a.jø] [tɔ̃ fʁɔ̃.t‿ɛ sɛ̃ də flø.ʁɔ̃ glɔ.ʁi.ø] [kaʁ tɔ̃ bʁa sɛ pɔʁ.te l‿e.pe.ə] [il sɛ pɔʁ.te la kʁwa] [tɔ.n‿is.twaʁ ɛ.t‿yn e.pɔ.pe.ə] [de ply bʁi.jɑ̃.z‿ɛks.plwa] [e ta va.løʁ de fwa tʁɑ̃.pe] 𝄆 [pʁɔ.te.ʒə.ʁa nɔ fwa.je.z‿e nɔ dʁwa] 𝄇</poem>|<poem>O Canada! Land of our ancestors Glorious deeds circle your brow For your arm knows how to wield the sword Your arm knows how to carry the cross; Your history is an epic Of brilliant deeds And your valour steeped in faith 𝄆 Will protect our homes and our rights. 𝄇</poem>|
### Multilingual versions
|Bilingual version (English and French)|Bilingual version (French and English)|Trilingual version (English, French and [Inuktitut](18063))|
| --- | --- | --- |
|<poem>O Canada! Our home and native land! True patriot love in all of us command. Car ton bras sait porter l'épée, Il sait porter la croix! Ton histoire est une épopée Des plus brillants exploits. God keep our land glorious and free! 𝄆 O Canada, we stand on guard for thee! 𝄇</poem>|<poem>Ô Canada! Terre de nos aïeux, Ton front est ceint de fleurons glorieux! Car ton bras sait porter l'épée, Il sait porter la croix! Ton histoire est une épopée Des plus brillants exploits. God keep our land glorious and free! 𝄆 O Canada, we stand on guard for thee! 𝄇</poem>|<poem>ᐆ ᑲᓇᑕ! ᓇᖕᒥᓂ ᓄᓇᕗᑦ! ᐱᖁᔭᑏ ᓇᓚᑦᑎᐊᖅᐸᕗᑦ. ᐊᖏᒡᓕᕙᓪᓕᐊᔪᑎ, Car ton bras sait porter l'épée, Il sait porter la croix ! Ton histoire est une épopée Des plus brillants exploits God keep our land glorious and free! 𝄆 O Canada, we stand on guard for thee! 𝄇</poem>|
### Translations into indigenous language
|Inuktitut|[Ojibwe](1130029)|[Cree](561759)|[Mi'kmaq](105833)|
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|<poem>ᐆ ᑲᓇᑕ! ᓇᖕᒥᓂ ᓄᓇᕗᑦ! ᐱᖁᔭᑏ ᓇᓚᑦᑎᐊᖅᐸᕗᑦ. ᐊᖏᒡᓕᕙᓪᓕᐊᔪᑎ, ᓴᙱᔪᓗᑎᓪᓗ. ᓇᖏᖅᐳᒍ, ᐆ ᑲᓇᑕ, ᒥᐊᓂᕆᑉᓗᑎ. ᐆ ᑲᓇᑕ! ᓄᓇᑦᓯᐊ! ᓇᖏᖅᐳᒍ ᒥᐊᓂᕆᑉᓗᑎ, 𝄆 ᐆ ᑲᓇᑕ, ᓴᓚᒋᔭᐅᖁᓇ!𝄇</poem>|<poem>O, Canada, maampii enjibaayang Nindakiimnaang gichi-aapittendaagwag Ninde'naang mashkawendandaa Giiwednong zaagtoodaa naaniibwidaa, O, Canada, weweni ganawendandaa 𝄆 O, Canada, gichi-gwanaaj naaniibwidaa, Miigwechiwendandaa! 𝄇</poem>|<poem>Ka Kanata, nikinan nitaskinan. Sahkihitowin kicawasimisak. Nitehinan kipasikon. Kicikiwetinohk. Ota ohci nete isko. Kasihtoskatinan. Nohtawinan. kanaweyita. 𝄆 Ka Kanata ninipawinan kiya ohci! 𝄇</poem>|<poem>O' Kanata, kmîtkinu kinu Me'ki ksite'lmulek nkamlamuninaq Kesi ksalulek mekite'lmulek Kisiknewa'liek ta'n tetutki'k U't maqmikew melki ankweyulek Kisu'lkw wli-anko'tjn kmîtkinu 𝄆 O' Kanata melki ikalulek! 𝄇</poem>|
## Infobox (anthem)
- **author**: Adolphe-Basile Routhier 1880 (French)
Robert Stanley Weir
- **composer**: Calixa Lavallée
- **sound**: "O Canada", performed by the United States Third Marine Aircraft Wing Band.oga
- **sound title**: O Canada
- **predecessor**: The Maple Leaf forever
- **lyrics date**: 1908 (English)
- **title**: O Canada / Ô Canada
- **country**: Canada
- **caption**: Building in Vieux-Québec, were _O Canada_ was composed
- **prefix**: National
- **image**: O Canada house QC.jpg
- **adopted**: 1980 | "**O Canada**" () is the national anthem of Canada. Calixa Lavallée wrote the music, and Adolphe-Basile Routhier wrote the words in French. It was first sung in French in 1880. Robert Stanley Weir wrote the English words for the song, which are not a translation of the French lyrics, in 1908.
It was sung as the national anthem for many years before the government made it official on 1 July (Canada Day) in 1980.
"O Canada" has been translated into many languages. Some of these languages are spoken by people living in Canada, but they trace their roots in other parts of the globe. These languages include Chinese, Japanese, German, Spanish, Italian, Punjabi, Russian, and Ukrainian. The song has also been translated into indigenous languages (languages spoken by First Nations), such as Inuktitut, Ojibwe, Cree, and Mi'kmaq.
### English lyrics
|English original|Simple English translation|
| --- | --- |
|<poem>O Canada! Our home and native land, True patriot love in all of us command! With glowing hearts we see thee rise The True North strong and free, From far and wide, O Canada, We stand on guard for thee. God keep our land glorious and free! O Canada, we stand on guard for thee; O Canada, we stand on guard for thee.</poem>|<poem></poem>|
### French lyrics
|French original|IPA transcription|English translation|
| --- | --- | --- |
|<poem>Ô Canada! Terre de nos aïeux, Ton front est ceint de fleurons glorieux! Car ton bras sait porter l'épée, Il sait porter la croix! Ton histoire est une épopée Des plus brillants exploits. Et ta valeur, de foi trempée, 𝄆 Protégera nos foyers et nos droits. 𝄇</poem>|<poem>[o kanada] [tɛ.ʁə də nɔ.z‿a.jø] [tɔ̃ fʁɔ̃.t‿ɛ sɛ̃ də flø.ʁɔ̃ glɔ.ʁi.ø] [kaʁ tɔ̃ bʁa sɛ pɔʁ.te l‿e.pe.ə] [il sɛ pɔʁ.te la kʁwa] [tɔ.n‿is.twaʁ ɛ.t‿yn e.pɔ.pe.ə] [de ply bʁi.jɑ̃.z‿ɛks.plwa] [e ta va.løʁ de fwa tʁɑ̃.pe] 𝄆 [pʁɔ.te.ʒə.ʁa nɔ fwa.je.z‿e nɔ dʁwa] 𝄇</poem>|<poem>O Canada! Land of our ancestors Glorious deeds circle your brow For your arm knows how to wield the sword Your arm knows how to carry the cross; Your history is an epic Of brilliant deeds And your valour steeped in faith 𝄆 Will protect our homes and our rights. 𝄇</poem>|
### Multilingual versions
|Bilingual version (English and French)|Bilingual version (French and English)|Trilingual version (English, French and Inuktitut)|
| --- | --- | --- |
|<poem>O Canada! Our home and native land! True patriot love in all of us command. Car ton bras sait porter l'épée, Il sait porter la croix! Ton histoire est une épopée Des plus brillants exploits. God keep our land glorious and free! 𝄆 O Canada, we stand on guard for thee! 𝄇</poem>|<poem>Ô Canada! Terre de nos aïeux, Ton front est ceint de fleurons glorieux! Car ton bras sait porter l'épée, Il sait porter la croix! Ton histoire est une épopée Des plus brillants exploits. God keep our land glorious and free! 𝄆 O Canada, we stand on guard for thee! 𝄇</poem>|<poem>ᐆ ᑲᓇᑕ! ᓇᖕᒥᓂ ᓄᓇᕗᑦ! ᐱᖁᔭᑏ ᓇᓚᑦᑎᐊᖅᐸᕗᑦ. ᐊᖏᒡᓕᕙᓪᓕᐊᔪᑎ, Car ton bras sait porter l'épée, Il sait porter la croix ! Ton histoire est une épopée Des plus brillants exploits God keep our land glorious and free! 𝄆 O Canada, we stand on guard for thee! 𝄇</poem>|
### Translations into indigenous language
|Inuktitut|Ojibwe|Cree|Mi'kmaq|
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
|<poem>ᐆ ᑲᓇᑕ! ᓇᖕᒥᓂ ᓄᓇᕗᑦ! ᐱᖁᔭᑏ ᓇᓚᑦᑎᐊᖅᐸᕗᑦ. ᐊᖏᒡᓕᕙᓪᓕᐊᔪᑎ, ᓴᙱᔪᓗᑎᓪᓗ. ᓇᖏᖅᐳᒍ, ᐆ ᑲᓇᑕ, ᒥᐊᓂᕆᑉᓗᑎ. ᐆ ᑲᓇᑕ! ᓄᓇᑦᓯᐊ! ᓇᖏᖅᐳᒍ ᒥᐊᓂᕆᑉᓗᑎ, 𝄆 ᐆ ᑲᓇᑕ, ᓴᓚᒋᔭᐅᖁᓇ!𝄇</poem>|<poem>O, Canada, maampii enjibaayang Nindakiimnaang gichi-aapittendaagwag Ninde'naang mashkawendandaa Giiwednong zaagtoodaa naaniibwidaa, O, Canada, weweni ganawendandaa 𝄆 O, Canada, gichi-gwanaaj naaniibwidaa, Miigwechiwendandaa! 𝄇</poem>|<poem>Ka Kanata, nikinan nitaskinan. Sahkihitowin kicawasimisak. Nitehinan kipasikon. Kicikiwetinohk. Ota ohci nete isko. Kasihtoskatinan. Nohtawinan. kanaweyita. 𝄆 Ka Kanata ninipawinan kiya ohci! 𝄇</poem>|<poem>O' Kanata, kmîtkinu kinu Me'ki ksite'lmulek nkamlamuninaq Kesi ksalulek mekite'lmulek Kisiknewa'liek ta'n tetutki'k U't maqmikew melki ankweyulek Kisu'lkw wli-anko'tjn kmîtkinu 𝄆 O' Kanata melki ikalulek! 𝄇</poem>|
## Infobox (anthem)
- **author**: Adolphe-Basile Routhier 1880 (French)
Robert Stanley Weir
- **composer**: Calixa Lavallée
- **sound**: "O Canada", performed by the United States Third Marine Aircraft Wing Band.oga
- **sound title**: O Canada
- **predecessor**: The Maple Leaf forever
- **lyrics date**: 1908 (English)
- **title**: O Canada / Ô Canada
- **country**: Canada
- **caption**: Building in Vieux-Québec, were _O Canada_ was composed
- **prefix**: National
- **image**: O Canada house QC.jpg
- **adopted**: 1980 | medium | false | false |
573 | Oahu | **Oahu** (or **Oʻahu**) is the third largest of the [Hawaiian Islands](3797), in the [United States](219587). It means "the gathering place" (a place where people meet) in the [Hawaiian language](15039). Most of the people of Hawaii live there (1.0 million of the state's 1.4 million in 2020). The total land area is . [Honolulu](333), the capital city of Hawaii, is on this island. Other well-known places on Oahu are [Waikiki](291728), Pearl Harbor, Diamond Head, [Hanauma Bay](778800), Kaneohe Bay, and both the North Shore and Makaha (which are famous for very big ocean waves).
## History
[Kamehameha I](606494) made Oahu his capital when he became the first king of Hawaii. Iolani Palace was built later on by others of the royal family. It is the only royal palace on American soil.
Oahu was perhaps the first of the Hawaiian Islands which the crew of _HMS Resolution_ saw on 18 January 1778. This was during Captain [James Cook](19761)'s third [Pacific Ocean](1975) trip. Europeans did not land on Oahu until 28 February 1779 when Captain Clerke of the _HMS Resolution_ stepped ashore at Waimea Bay. Clerke took command of the ship after Captain Cook was killed at Kealakekua Bay on February 14.
## Economy
Today, Oahu has become a tourism and shopping center. Almost 7 million visitors (mainly from the [American mainland](219587) and [Japan](403)) go there every year to enjoy the special island holiday found only in Hawaii.
## Oahu in TV
Oahu can be seen in hundreds of movies and TV shows. Some of them are _[Magnum, P.I.](17303)_, _[Lost](61476)_, _[Hawaii Five-O](758324)_ and _[Jake and the Fatman](909210)_. | **Oahu** (or **Oʻahu**) is the third largest of the Hawaiian Islands, in the United States. It means "the gathering place" (a place where people meet) in the Hawaiian language. Most of the people of Hawaii live there (1.0 million of the state's 1.4 million in 2020). The total land area is . Honolulu, the capital city of Hawaii, is on this island. Other well-known places on Oahu are Waikiki, Pearl Harbor, Diamond Head, Hanauma Bay, Kaneohe Bay, and both the North Shore and Makaha (which are famous for very big ocean waves).
## History
Kamehameha I made Oahu his capital when he became the first king of Hawaii. Iolani Palace was built later on by others of the royal family. It is the only royal palace on American soil.
Oahu was perhaps the first of the Hawaiian Islands which the crew of _HMS Resolution_ saw on 18 January 1778. This was during Captain James Cook's third Pacific Ocean trip. Europeans did not land on Oahu until 28 February 1779 when Captain Clerke of the _HMS Resolution_ stepped ashore at Waimea Bay. Clerke took command of the ship after Captain Cook was killed at Kealakekua Bay on February 14.
## Economy
Today, Oahu has become a tourism and shopping center. Almost 7 million visitors (mainly from the American mainland and Japan) go there every year to enjoy the special island holiday found only in Hawaii.
## Oahu in TV
Oahu can be seen in hundreds of movies and TV shows. Some of them are _Magnum, P.I._, _Lost_, _Hawaii Five-O_ and _Jake and the Fatman_. | high | false | false |
575 | Open content | **Open content** is [content](47554) that is openly accessible, usable, editable, and distributable by anyone for any purpose, even commercially. Open content is licensed with an [open license](254384) that authorizes use of the content as described above.
When someone creates something (like a [picture](6079) or [book](3686)), they can open it for the use of others. This means that other people are allowed to copy it and change it if they want. Something that is open content may be free of charge, but it does not have to be.
The [Simple English Wikipedia](117020) is open content, and so are other [Wikipedia](27263)s. If a person changes open content or makes new open content, everyone can give it to anyone else, or even sell it.
## License
The rules that say how people can use, change and pass around open content are called a [license](444). A license explains exactly what you are allowed to do with the content that falls under it. Licenses are often written in difficult language (legal [jargon](404)), but many licenses have [summaries](811) that are much easier to understand.
The makers of open content get to choose what license to use for their work, and everyone else has to follow it. Only the maker, who owns the [copyright](1586), can change it to another license. Most open content licenses say that when others change the work, they must also declare it to be open and under the same license. This is called _share-alike_ and means that anything based on work will always be open content.
All the content in Wikipedia is open under the rules of the Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License, a very well-known open content license. Another well-known open content license is the GNU Free Documentation License.
## Related pages
- Open educational content
- [Open data](916292)
- Openness
## Other websites
- [Openverse](https://wordpress.org/openverse), search engine for finding open content | **Open content** is content that is openly accessible, usable, editable, and distributable by anyone for any purpose, even commercially. Open content is licensed with an open license that authorizes use of the content as described above.
When someone creates something (like a picture or book), they can open it for the use of others. This means that other people are allowed to copy it and change it if they want. Something that is open content may be free of charge, but it does not have to be.
The Simple English Wikipedia is open content, and so are other Wikipedias. If a person changes open content or makes new open content, everyone can give it to anyone else, or even sell it.
## License
The rules that say how people can use, change and pass around open content are called a license. A license explains exactly what you are allowed to do with the content that falls under it. Licenses are often written in difficult language (legal jargon), but many licenses have summaries that are much easier to understand.
The makers of open content get to choose what license to use for their work, and everyone else has to follow it. Only the maker, who owns the copyright, can change it to another license. Most open content licenses say that when others change the work, they must also declare it to be open and under the same license. This is called _share-alike_ and means that anything based on work will always be open content.
All the content in Wikipedia is open under the rules of the Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License, a very well-known open content license. Another well-known open content license is the GNU Free Documentation License.
## Related pages
- Open educational content
- Open data
- Openness
## Other websites
- Openverse, search engine for finding open content | medium | false | false |
577 | Orthography | **Orthography** is an official or correct way to [write](3681) a particular language. It includes rules of **spelling**. Orthography may also include rules about [punctuation](20959), [capitalization](176), and [diacritic](143838)s (e.g. accents). In English, spelling is a problem for all learners, and is the main issue in orthography.
Some languages have someone to decide the correct spelling, such as the [Académie française](418590). English does not. English orthography was the work of the early [printer](38855)s. They had to decide how particular words would be spelled in their books. Gradually the number of alternative spellings began to drop. The word which is "merry" today was spelled in about 30 ways in written sources from the 9th to the 16th century.<sup>p970</sup>
## English orthography
English orthography, or English spelling, is the way the 26 letters of the [alphabet](5892) are used to write down the 36 (IPA) sounds of English. The first [manuscript](63283)s in [Old English](48111) were written using the [Latin](6592) alphabet. It had 24 letters.<sup>p16</sup>
### Vowels
No alphabet fits its language exactly. One reason for this is that there are always more sounds than letters. In English there are far more [vowel](32620) sounds than vowels. The [ancient Greeks](13444), who were the first to use letters for vowels, decided to use only a few letters for their vowel sounds. This choice influenced all later alphabets:
- "The importance of the Greeks in the history of alphabetic writing is paramount. All the alphabets in use in Europe today stand in direct or indirect relation to the ancient Greek".
English would need about 20 vowels to represent the vowel phonemes (~sounds) in common use,<sup>p237</sup> and some languages do have more letters for vowels. The [Georgian language](52487) has a total of 41 letters. A shorter alphabet works by using two or three letters for a single sound, or one letter for several sounds.
### Consonants
The [English alphabet](591390) has only three consonants which have one sound, cannot be produced by other combinations and are never silent: n, r and v. The [English language](2843) uses 22 to 26 [consonant](32619) phonemes.
### Dialects
The other reason that alphabets never exactly fit languages is [dialect](21596). A spoken language varies from place to place and from time to time. This is very obvious with English, as the pronunciation is so different in different parts of the world. A written language will always be less flexible than its spoken parent. It has a different function, and is produced mechanically. It must serve everyone who speaks the language, and it does this by keeping the spelling similar from one time to another.
Therefore, all alphabets have sounds which are difficult to represent with the letters in use. And English also has other problems: sounds that can be written in different ways, and spelling which can be pronounced in different ways. This all gives rise to problems of spelling.
## British and American English
Differences between [American English](28) and [British English](83) spelling came about mainly as the result of one man. [Noah Webster](363870) (1758–1843) wrote a _Grammar_, a _Spelling_ book, and finally an _American dictionary of the English language_. In the course of this, he proposed a number of simplifications in spelling. In his dictionary, he chose _s_ over _c_ in words like _defense_, he changed the _re_ to _er_ in words like _center_, he dropped one of the Ls in _traveler_. At first he kept the u in words like colour or favour but dropped it in later editions. He also changed _tongue_ to _tung_: that did not stick. His main reason was to help children learn to read and write. Webster's dictionary contained seventy thousand words, of which twelve thousand had never appeared in a published dictionary before.
Webster did create a slightly different identity for American English. But, because his efforts did not address some of the most glaring problems, his variations make little difference to the way the language is used. An example of the real problems in English orthography is the word ending _-ough_, which is pronounced several different ways: tough, bough, cough... The root causes of spelling variation are historical. Loan words come with their own (foreign) spelling. Some French loan words are still spelled in the French way; others have been changed.
English spelling reform has been proposed by many people since Webster, such as [George Bernard Shaw](51109), who proposed a new [phonetic](82993) [alphabet](5892) for English. In some cases Webster's changes have been widely adopted in Britain: the spelling _programme_ came from the French; US _program_ is clearly simpler, and more consistent with word endings in English. In our modern world, English orthography is still a problem. In some countries (notably, [France](291)) a national committee can give advice and direction as to spelling. English has long escaped from national [custody](221489).
- Spelling, though important, is less important than how the language is used in practice. The differences between British and American English in use are more to do with [idiom](371), [slang](717) and [vocabulary](889) than they are to do with spelling. In this respect, spelling in writing or print is a bit like [pronunciation](95605) in [speech](40654). They are the necessary outer clothes, but the inner substance is more important.
- In Wikipedia (note the spelling), articles may be in either American or British English, but should be consistent within each article. More details: Wikipedia:Manual of Style
## Dictionaries and phonetics
Modern British spelling and use was greatly influenced by the two great English [dictionaries](206), [Samuel Johnson](29710)'s _A dictionary of the English language_ (1755), and James Murray's _Oxford English Dictionary_. Johnson's dictionary was hugely influential, abroad as well as at home. The dictionary was exported to America.
- "The American adoption of the _Dictionary_ was a momentous event not just in its history, but in the history of lexicography. For Americans in the second half of the eighteenth century, Johnson was the authority on language, and the subsequent development of American dictionaries was coloured by his fame".<sup>p224</sup>
For American lexicographers, the dictionary was impossible to ignore:
- "America's two great nineteenth-century lexicographers, Noah Webster and Joseph Emerson Worcester, argued fiercely over Johnson's legacy ... In 1789 [Webster] declared that 'Great Britain, whose children we are, and whose language we speak, should no longer be our standard; for the taste of her writers is already corrupted, and her language on the decline.' ... Where Webster found fault with Johnson, Joseph Worcester saluted him ... In 1846 he completed his _Universal and critical dictionary of the English Language_.<sup>p226</sup>
Some people argue which [language](419) is the easiest to spell. People who learn a [second language](9679) tend to think that their first (native) language is the easiest. However, for the learner, programmatic languages, with well-defined rules, are easier to start with than English. The spelling of the English language is by far the most irregular of all alphabetic spellings and thus the most difficult to learn. English is, in its origin, a [Germanic language](31039). From its early roots as Anglo-Saxon, it has borrowed words from many other languages: French (a Romance language) and [Latin](6592) are the most frequent donors to English.
Languages that use [phonetic](82993) spelling are easier to learn to spell than others. With phonetic spelling the words are spelled as they are pronounced. The Italian word "orologio" for instance is pronounced oh-ro-LO-jo ("gi" always making a "j" sound.) In English, one comes across the word "knife". In "knife", the "k" is not spoken, even though in English it's more common to pronounce "K"s when they are in words.
## History of English spelling
One of the problems we have is that similar sounding words may be spelt quite differently. Rough and ruff; meet and meat; great and grate. Words with complicated spelling may be pronounced simply: Leicester is pronounced 'Lester'. Even what rules we do have are frequently broken. "_i_ before _e_ except after _c_" has over 100 exceptions.<sup>p272</sup> Almost all these problems have come about for historical reasons. English has been changing for the last thousand years, and as the language changes, so parts of it get stuck with different spellings.
Here are some of the causes of English orthography:
1. Originally a 23-letter [alphabet](5892) for the 35 or so [phoneme](217600)s (sounds) of [Old English](48111). Other letters were added later.
1. After the [Norman conquest](47513), French [scribe](61959)s introduced new spellings.
1. [Printing](38855). Many of the early printers came from the continent of Europe, and brought other spelling norms to England. But, although print stabilised spelling, [pronunciation](95605) continued to change.
1. Printing coincided with the _Great Vowel Shift_ at the end of [Middle English](29589) (end 14th to 15th centuries). To avoid complex details, here is what happened: over a century, the pronunciation of all the vowels changed, and is still not standard throughout Britain. In any event, the spelling of thousands of words now reflects their pronunciation in [Geoffrey Chaucer](16687)'s time.
1. 16th-century scholars tried to indicate the history of a word by its spelling: the silent 'b' in 'debt' is there to reflect the [Latin](6592) _debitum_.
1. More loan words added in the late 16th to early 17th century, such as _pneumonia_, _idiosyncrasy_, _epitome_, _cocoa_.
English has a huge number of words, but its spelling comes from many different sources. "The large and varied lexicon of English has been bought at the expense of an increasingly deversified graphology".<sup>p275</sup>
## Differences between languages
Some languages have a high correspondence between phonemes and letters. That means they get close to one letter for each sound. If there was a perfect correspondence, that language would have _phonemic orthography_. English is highly non-phonemic. It has almost every kind of deviation known:
1. different letters for the same sound
1. two or more letters for a single sound
1. sound depends on nearby letters
1. vast range of words whose sound varies according to dialect
1. huge number of loan words with imported spellings
1. defective: it does not represent some important differences in phonemes. Example: the difference between the voiced th (_the_) and the unvoiced th (_thin_).
This field of study is called "orthographic depth". The orthographic depth of an [alphabet](5892)ic script is the degree to which a written language deviates from simple one-to-one letter–[phoneme](217600) correspondence. It shows how easy it is to predict the pronunciation of a word from its spelling. Shallow orthographies are easy to pronounce based on the written word, and deep orthographies are difficult to pronounce based on how they are written. In shallow orthographies, the spelling-sound correspondence is direct: given the rules of pronunciation, one is able to "say" the word correctly.
Most other international languages have similar problems: in [French](3597), [Arabic](8522) or [Hebrew](14175), new readers have difficulty learning to decode words. As a result, children learn to read more slowly. In both [Spanish](6432) and [Italian](8249) there is a more direct connection between spelling and pronunciation. Those are languages with low orthographic depth.
## Related pages
- [Ghoti](451338) | **Orthography** is an official or correct way to write a particular language. It includes rules of **spelling**. Orthography may also include rules about punctuation, capitalization, and diacritics (e.g. accents). In English, spelling is a problem for all learners, and is the main issue in orthography.
Some languages have someone to decide the correct spelling, such as the Académie française. English does not. English orthography was the work of the early printers. They had to decide how particular words would be spelled in their books. Gradually the number of alternative spellings began to drop. The word which is "merry" today was spelled in about 30 ways in written sources from the 9th to the 16th century.<sup>p970</sup>
## English orthography
English orthography, or English spelling, is the way the 26 letters of the alphabet are used to write down the 36 (IPA) sounds of English. The first manuscripts in Old English were written using the Latin alphabet. It had 24 letters.<sup>p16</sup>
### Vowels
No alphabet fits its language exactly. One reason for this is that there are always more sounds than letters. In English there are far more vowel sounds than vowels. The ancient Greeks, who were the first to use letters for vowels, decided to use only a few letters for their vowel sounds. This choice influenced all later alphabets:
- "The importance of the Greeks in the history of alphabetic writing is paramount. All the alphabets in use in Europe today stand in direct or indirect relation to the ancient Greek".
English would need about 20 vowels to represent the vowel phonemes (~sounds) in common use,<sup>p237</sup> and some languages do have more letters for vowels. The Georgian language has a total of 41 letters. A shorter alphabet works by using two or three letters for a single sound, or one letter for several sounds.
### Consonants
The English alphabet has only three consonants which have one sound, cannot be produced by other combinations and are never silent: n, r and v. The English language uses 22 to 26 consonant phonemes.
### Dialects
The other reason that alphabets never exactly fit languages is dialect. A spoken language varies from place to place and from time to time. This is very obvious with English, as the pronunciation is so different in different parts of the world. A written language will always be less flexible than its spoken parent. It has a different function, and is produced mechanically. It must serve everyone who speaks the language, and it does this by keeping the spelling similar from one time to another.
Therefore, all alphabets have sounds which are difficult to represent with the letters in use. And English also has other problems: sounds that can be written in different ways, and spelling which can be pronounced in different ways. This all gives rise to problems of spelling.
## British and American English
Differences between American English and British English spelling came about mainly as the result of one man. Noah Webster (1758–1843) wrote a _Grammar_, a _Spelling_ book, and finally an _American dictionary of the English language_. In the course of this, he proposed a number of simplifications in spelling. In his dictionary, he chose _s_ over _c_ in words like _defense_, he changed the _re_ to _er_ in words like _center_, he dropped one of the Ls in _traveler_. At first he kept the u in words like colour or favour but dropped it in later editions. He also changed _tongue_ to _tung_: that did not stick. His main reason was to help children learn to read and write. Webster's dictionary contained seventy thousand words, of which twelve thousand had never appeared in a published dictionary before.
Webster did create a slightly different identity for American English. But, because his efforts did not address some of the most glaring problems, his variations make little difference to the way the language is used. An example of the real problems in English orthography is the word ending _-ough_, which is pronounced several different ways: tough, bough, cough... The root causes of spelling variation are historical. Loan words come with their own (foreign) spelling. Some French loan words are still spelled in the French way; others have been changed.
English spelling reform has been proposed by many people since Webster, such as George Bernard Shaw, who proposed a new phonetic alphabet for English. In some cases Webster's changes have been widely adopted in Britain: the spelling _programme_ came from the French; US _program_ is clearly simpler, and more consistent with word endings in English. In our modern world, English orthography is still a problem. In some countries (notably, France) a national committee can give advice and direction as to spelling. English has long escaped from national custody.
- Spelling, though important, is less important than how the language is used in practice. The differences between British and American English in use are more to do with idiom, slang and vocabulary than they are to do with spelling. In this respect, spelling in writing or print is a bit like pronunciation in speech. They are the necessary outer clothes, but the inner substance is more important.
- In Wikipedia (note the spelling), articles may be in either American or British English, but should be consistent within each article. More details: Wikipedia:Manual of Style
## Dictionaries and phonetics
Modern British spelling and use was greatly influenced by the two great English dictionaries, Samuel Johnson's _A dictionary of the English language_ (1755), and James Murray's _Oxford English Dictionary_. Johnson's dictionary was hugely influential, abroad as well as at home. The dictionary was exported to America.
- "The American adoption of the _Dictionary_ was a momentous event not just in its history, but in the history of lexicography. For Americans in the second half of the eighteenth century, Johnson was the authority on language, and the subsequent development of American dictionaries was coloured by his fame".<sup>p224</sup>
For American lexicographers, the dictionary was impossible to ignore:
- "America's two great nineteenth-century lexicographers, Noah Webster and Joseph Emerson Worcester, argued fiercely over Johnson's legacy ... In 1789 [Webster] declared that 'Great Britain, whose children we are, and whose language we speak, should no longer be our standard; for the taste of her writers is already corrupted, and her language on the decline.' ... Where Webster found fault with Johnson, Joseph Worcester saluted him ... In 1846 he completed his _Universal and critical dictionary of the English Language_.<sup>p226</sup>
Some people argue which language is the easiest to spell. People who learn a second language tend to think that their first (native) language is the easiest. However, for the learner, programmatic languages, with well-defined rules, are easier to start with than English. The spelling of the English language is by far the most irregular of all alphabetic spellings and thus the most difficult to learn. English is, in its origin, a Germanic language. From its early roots as Anglo-Saxon, it has borrowed words from many other languages: French (a Romance language) and Latin are the most frequent donors to English.
Languages that use phonetic spelling are easier to learn to spell than others. With phonetic spelling the words are spelled as they are pronounced. The Italian word "orologio" for instance is pronounced oh-ro-LO-jo ("gi" always making a "j" sound.) In English, one comes across the word "knife". In "knife", the "k" is not spoken, even though in English it's more common to pronounce "K"s when they are in words.
## History of English spelling
One of the problems we have is that similar sounding words may be spelt quite differently. Rough and ruff; meet and meat; great and grate. Words with complicated spelling may be pronounced simply: Leicester is pronounced 'Lester'. Even what rules we do have are frequently broken. "_i_ before _e_ except after _c_" has over 100 exceptions.<sup>p272</sup> Almost all these problems have come about for historical reasons. English has been changing for the last thousand years, and as the language changes, so parts of it get stuck with different spellings.
Here are some of the causes of English orthography:
1. Originally a 23-letter alphabet for the 35 or so phonemes (sounds) of Old English. Other letters were added later.
1. After the Norman conquest, French scribes introduced new spellings.
1. Printing. Many of the early printers came from the continent of Europe, and brought other spelling norms to England. But, although print stabilised spelling, pronunciation continued to change.
1. Printing coincided with the _Great Vowel Shift_ at the end of Middle English (end 14th to 15th centuries). To avoid complex details, here is what happened: over a century, the pronunciation of all the vowels changed, and is still not standard throughout Britain. In any event, the spelling of thousands of words now reflects their pronunciation in Geoffrey Chaucer's time.
1. 16th-century scholars tried to indicate the history of a word by its spelling: the silent 'b' in 'debt' is there to reflect the Latin _debitum_.
1. More loan words added in the late 16th to early 17th century, such as _pneumonia_, _idiosyncrasy_, _epitome_, _cocoa_.
English has a huge number of words, but its spelling comes from many different sources. "The large and varied lexicon of English has been bought at the expense of an increasingly deversified graphology".<sup>p275</sup>
## Differences between languages
Some languages have a high correspondence between phonemes and letters. That means they get close to one letter for each sound. If there was a perfect correspondence, that language would have _phonemic orthography_. English is highly non-phonemic. It has almost every kind of deviation known:
1. different letters for the same sound
1. two or more letters for a single sound
1. sound depends on nearby letters
1. vast range of words whose sound varies according to dialect
1. huge number of loan words with imported spellings
1. defective: it does not represent some important differences in phonemes. Example: the difference between the voiced th (_the_) and the unvoiced th (_thin_).
This field of study is called "orthographic depth". The orthographic depth of an alphabetic script is the degree to which a written language deviates from simple one-to-one letter–phoneme correspondence. It shows how easy it is to predict the pronunciation of a word from its spelling. Shallow orthographies are easy to pronounce based on the written word, and deep orthographies are difficult to pronounce based on how they are written. In shallow orthographies, the spelling-sound correspondence is direct: given the rules of pronunciation, one is able to "say" the word correctly.
Most other international languages have similar problems: in French, Arabic or Hebrew, new readers have difficulty learning to decode words. As a result, children learn to read more slowly. In both Spanish and Italian there is a more direct connection between spelling and pronunciation. Those are languages with low orthographic depth.
## Related pages
- Ghoti | medium | false | false |
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